
   , , 
       
            :
    ;  ;  ;  ;
    ;  ;  ;  ;
    ,     ;
    ,  ;  ;  ;
    ;      . 
   
                ,         ,            ,  , ,       .
    ,        ,  ,    ,   .       ,        .
             .       ()       ,   ,      .     ,    .     ,          .        ,    .   ,                 .
           .   .    .          .             ,     .   ,               ,   .       .
          , , ,  ,         .      ,   .
               ,  , ,  .               ,       .   , ,  ,       .       ,             .   ,    ,     :      .
      ,             .      :     ,        , , ,     ,  ,  ,   .
                         .              ,        .
   .      ,        ,        .
       , ,       ,    .       1984     ,  ,       .   ,      :          .       ,     , , ,   ,                ,       .
                     ,        ,       , , .
     ,       ,          1960- ,  ,   ,  .              ,     .         ,      .      ,    ,    ,           .       :       ,    .     ,    ,          ,               .
                  .      ,   ,      ,  ,    .  ,     ,     .
    ,  ,    ,            1300  .
       , ,                 .           :       .           ,   ,     .       ,     . ,   ,       ,  ,   ,      [1].
   ,        .       ,     .             .  ,   ,  :            .  ,      ,    .
           ?      ,       .  1981   ,  , ,            :      59    ,       [2],      1982 , 67%,  ,    ,  [3].
                 .                 .        22 1972  84   8  27-    ,   .        .     ,   ,      .     .          ,       .
    ,  ,     ,    .
           .     1964      ,      .              . ,  , .  1983    15%      .       20%.       .     75%   35%   .
        .   ,       ,     .     .                 .    ,       .        ,           17 1969 .   :
             ,   ,  ,       ,       ,    ,        .           ,     ,      ..          ,       .  ,        ,               [4].
            ,     ,       ,     ,        .      ,         ,   .
          .       ,  ,      .     ,      .      ,   , ,    ,          .
          ,  ,          .   , , ,     ,      ,       .
             ,       .     ,   , ,     ,          ,     .
       , .  ,          .           ( 1832    ,  ,  1833    ).    ,        .
   .            ,   .  ,             .   ,       1218 ,    .        ,    ,                     .
      ,       :  ,          ,       . .       , ,    ,         .           .          ,    .              , ,          ,    .            .     ,      .
             .    ,        ,              .     ,               ,    ,    .  ,      , ,  ,   ,      .     ,        ,     ,     ,    .
       ,   ,         ,      .
   .  ,         .     ,       ,           .    ,   , ,           ,         ,      ,  ,     .    .
          . ,          ,        ,          .            XIX ,   ,    .     ,      :      . ,       .   ,    ,     .  , ,                   .
         . ,          .   .      , ,           ,     .
         ,      ,     ,          .  1978       ,           ,        ,     .       . ,           .
        ,     .         .     ,    .   ,            ,   .  ,  ,          1886 ,    ,        ,     .  ,  ,  ,                  ,    .
     .          :   ,           .
        ,     ,              .      ,                    .
         ,   ,         ,      , ,   ,     .           XX      1905  ,      .   ,   ,     .  ,  .      ,        .
           ,       :  ,   ,             (    ).     ,      .           .
     ,                    .          ,      .          70- .     ,          .
      ,    ,       .    .    ,  ,      .
            .   ,         ,        . .  ,                  .
       ,                   .
   . . 
    
    (19761986),    ,  ,          ,    .          ,         .   ,               .               ,       .
                ,           .      ,    ,         ,    .             ,             .    ,       ,          .
          1981    ,      .        ,   ,     ,    ,         .         ,    ,           .           ,       .     ,               ,     .    ,     ,   ,            ,       .         .     ,    ,             . , ,     ,                .
    ,         [5]       , :       :   .    ,  ,    ,     ,     ,  ,     .      ,     ,              .    ,   ,   ,        ,   ,         .
         ,      ,      ,      . ,  ,     ,    ,       .
   ,      ,        .           ,     ,    ,         .
   ,   ,              .     ,                    .  ,         ,     .  ,          ,      ,             .
   . 
    1.     
        .   1918   ,                  {1},     .  ,  ,     ,          .           .             ,   ,       .       ,         {2}.
    70-  XX        .     , , . ,  {3}.     {4},.   .    {5},        {6}.             {7},    1959 .         ,    . ,          ,  .         ,       ,        .
            ,    . .      ,       ,    ,         {8}  ,    1965 .    .          ,       :        ,          . .  , ,  ,    ,       ,         .    . ,    ,  .      ,      ,       ,     .
        .        .                     .        , , ,        .
     ,   ,    ,     {9}.  ,     ,         .       . ,        ,      .
         ,  ,     ,  ,       .   ,               ,    {10}.  XIX     ,     ,      ,  ,  ,  .
               ,  ,           ,        .    ,           ,  ,         .    ,    .    ,      .          ,              .    XIX     ,  ,   ,   {11}. ,  ,   ,     ,  ,   ,   .      1930-  ,             :
         ,        .             . ,   ,               .   ,    ,     ,     .      ,   :     {12}.
      ,  ,  .     ,         ,          .      .          .
        :         ,      .     ,     :   ,    ,   ,         ;    ,      ,      ,     .
            ,                 .       .  XIX             ,       (  ). ,     10, 12, 14   ,   . , ,  ,              ,    .      ,    XIX ,   .         .      ,     ;  ,           .
       ,     ,    ,  .           ,          .                 ,          ,    {13}.
   ,     ,       .          ,       ,   .                .
        ,  ,    ,               ,       .            ,             .   ,               ,              .  ,          ,          ,     .         ,        .
    , ,         ,         :
       ,     ,    .      ,        ,   {14}.
           ,        .       .     ,  .        ,    {15}.
   , ,   ,      ,    .          .       ,    ,              ,    .            :              .        ,     ,      ,     {16}.
     ,           ,        .       ,        .            :
    ,    , ,   ,     ,     .        .  ,        ,     ,   {17}.
              ,    ,     ,              .
      ,   ,     ,    ,     ,      ,       .       ,     ,      .             ,   {18}.
              .      .        ,    .
     ,       ,   ,       .    ,   ,         ,        {19}
    .         :
   ,            ,    .
           ,                       ,   ..{20}.
      ,     ,   ,   .             {21}.             ,      {22}.
              {23}.         ,  .   .    ,       ..,       ,   ,      ,    ,  ,    ,      {24}.
     ,      ,        :     ,     {25}.
    ,        ,    ,       .  ,       ,         ,      XIX   .   .     , ,      ,      :        ,   40.         ;     ;      ;    ,  ,  ,    {26}.,          ,  ,  ,         .     . ,      ,       {27}. ,        ,     , , ,              .               ,     .
             ,        .      ,       ,    ,     ,     .                 ,        .  ,       ,    .          ,     .        .             ,    .                 .           ,    .        ,      .      ,     .      ,     ?             ,               .
        1965   ,    ,              .  ,    ,      , ,      ,             ,   ,   {28}.
     ,     ,   ,   , ,        .      ,   ,         !      ,              ,      .
       . ,   ,     {29}.  .       ,       .         . ,    , , ,   ,      ,      .     ,      ,    ,          ,    , , {30}.,   . ,         ,    ,       ,  .       ,     .         ,   ,     {31}.
              .   . .  ,      ,   1930-     {32}. ,    .  ,       ,             ,    . .             ,        ,   ,    ,     ( ) .   {33}.
     ,     ,               .  10  ,  1976 ,         {34}. .           .      ,  ,   , ,     ,    .
          , ,       , .  ,           ,   .          . ,  . ,    ,             {35}.
       , ,   . ,      ,   , .  ,      ,     ,    ,  .   ,     ,  ,    ,        {36}.      ,     ,         ,   ,         .
         ,      ,       ,     ,     ,       ,        ,                  廅      ,      ,       ,         {37}.
    , .       ,   .        ,    , .        ,     .             ,    .  ,    ,             . ,                   .
           ,      ,   ,    ,  . ,     ,     ,    ,    ,   ,         ,   ,  ,      {38}.
   ,      , ,   ,      .  ,   ,   :
         ,       ,  .      ,         ,  ,  ,  .  ,   ,    ,    .       (   ),  ,  ,   {39}.
   ,             ,           .   ,        ,           .,  ,       .     ,   , ,    ,       .
    ,    1971 {40},   ,      ,         :         ,      ,            .          .          养
             ,   .            .       ,      ,     .
         ,        ,          .         ,    ,    .     , ,    ,     . , ,  ,         ,         .          .  , ,           .      .  ,   ,        :      ,      , ,    {41}.
           .    ,    ,   ,   .         .      ,   ,   ,       .       , ,  ( ,      ,     )    ,    ,   ,    .
           .           .   ,       ,    ,    . .  ,       ,    ,        ,        ,      ,    ,   , {42}.
                       , , ,  ,  ,       ,           ,       ,  ,      {43}.
      ,     . ,  ,           .  , ,  ,  , ,        .  ,  ,      ,   ,        {44}.
           ,       .
           ,       ,          .      ,         . ,          {45},    ,    , ,   ,   [6]    ,    .
         ,         ,  .
    ,         {46},       .   , ,        {47}.       , ,     {48}.     .   ,  ,     ,     .      :  ,    .      ,      .       .                 .   ,      .   ,        ,       {49}.
    ,  . ,       .
    ,    [7]*,     .  ,    .             ,      ,   .     1855   ,      .  ,    ,  ,    ,   {50}.
        ,    ,   .              ,        {51}.           .     ,    ,    ,         .          . .  ,    ,  ,      ,       ,   ,   ,      ,         {52}.
          ,   .      ,  . ,         {53}.
        :  , 1812 :  , , o  ,     ,        ,   .  , 1835 :    ,     ,    ,    .
          .     ,         .  ,          . .  ,     :      ,    {54}. 1642     1864         ,      .      ,       ,       {55}. 1816       : 300    ,        .    ,   ,   10 .    250 .       {56}.     ,  ,  1827      ,  ,   {57}.
          ,   . , ,  ,  ,    ,       ,     {58}. ,            .     {59},  ,   ,   ,      .     ,             .
             ,        ,     [8]    300  {60}.     .     ,  ,     .        , ,      ,     ,  .     19   .       ,  ,   ,   . ,        ,  ,   .                     .
     ,    , ,  ,    ,    ,     .   ,         ,                ,   .     , ,    , ,    ,            .  ,       . ,    ,      ,  ,    .               ,   .       ,                .      ,              .
                    .   ,          ;  ,   ,    {61}.       ,       {62}.                . ,   ,   ,      ,      , ,      .
     .     :  ,      .     ,   .    .     ,   ,   ,   {63}.
       ,   ,    .         ,       .           ,   ,   ,      .           ,   .  ,   ,     .
        XIX         .
   .    :
            ,   .    ,          {64}.
              ,         .    ,        .        ,    .      , , ,   , .  ,          ,     .  :   ,    ,         {65}.  ,   ,     ,    ,    ,   ,       ,    {66}.
      .      . ,   ,        ,               .             , ,  .           .   ,       ,   ,   ,    ,      .   ,     , ,     . .             {67},         ,    .
   .   ,              .  ,        ,     ,    ,     {68}.
      , ,        ,       :    ,                {69}.
   .     ,        ,     ,        .    ,     ,   : ,   ,  ,    .        .  ,    ,    ,      .     {70}.
    ,    ,   ,    .    ,       ,       .         ,         . ,     ,  ,   ,      :     ,   ,   ,          ,       .
                 ,     ,     ,    ,     .       ,      .   ,    ,     ,        .    , ,      ,   ,     ,   ,   . ,  ,   ,        [9],  ,    ,   ,   .
   ,     ,         ,     ,  ,     ,         .
     ,         ,   ,   , ,   ,   ,         ,      .     , , , ,  , ,  ,   ,   .          ,                 :   .       ,   , , ,  ,     {71}.
         . ,     (   ),           .             .   ,      , , ,     ,    .               , , ,      . ,  ,     ,       ,       {72}.   .
             ,   ,    ,    ,   ,       ,  ,     ,      ,   , ,         ,   ,       .      ,       ,     ,   ,    ,   {73}.           ,         .  , ,  ,  ,     XIX   ,           .     .             .         ,     . ,   ,      ,          . , ,      .       , , ,         .
   ,  ,    , ,       .              ,       ,     ,   ,    ,    .
                  , ,   ,  ,        ,  ,  ,    .
    2.        
   .  :       ,        ,    {74}.
      , ,        XIX ,      ,     (     . . .){75}, ,    ,         .         .     .           ,  ,     .   .      ,   ,      ,    .   ,      {76}..      ,          ,   .      ,                 {77}.
          ?     ,   XIX  ,        ?            ,  , ,  ,         .   ,  , ,     {78},          .
       ,    ,      ,     ,     :      .     , ,   .          , , ,    . ,       ,    ,     {79}.        ,     .     ,     ,   .      ,          ,      ,        ,      .
                       ,       XIX .      XIX       .          .  1830-       ,   . ,       ,  .    ,    ,      ,          .         .              . ,           ,    :      {80}.
            ,               .     (   ),  , ,  ,    ,   .     ,    ,          .      ,       ,    .        ,         .    ,       .           ,   .          .     .      {81}.
        1830- .           ,        ,  ,   .  1831 ,     ,    .   30-            ,        .     ,  ,     ,          {82}.
           ,            .  ,     ,    .    ,     ,   .   1838     ,  ,  , ,   ,  :
   ,     ;
      !
   ,    ,
      {83}.
           , , ,        .     ,           .             ,      {84}.   XIX   ,            ,    .  ,     ,     ,        , ,     . , ,       ,            .                    ,       .
    1830-      ,         .     ,   ,        ,           {85}. 1833 ,               ,                [10].          ,       ,     .        ,  ,      {86}.                           .
     ,    ,      ,  ,      .        .    ,     , .         ,           .     .     ,         .      ,  ,           ,       {87}. ,         ,          ,        .
   .       :    , .   .     .
                    .     . ,     ,    .  ,      ,         {88}.
                 ,   ? ,        ,      .  .      ,          {89}.  ,   ,        , ,   ,    .  1833        ,             ,     .           , ,     ,     .  .         ,         .
   .   :     ,      ,       .     .     ,      ,      {90}.
           1 1831      .  1833 ,   ,                    . ,   ,    ,           .       ,      .                    , , , , .
    1833       , , ,        .                  .           ,          ,    .        ,            .
          1833     .  ,      ,        {91}      . , ,        ,          .                             .
     ,  ,   . .     ,     ?     ,          ?{92}
    ,     ,  ,    ,            {93}.            ,  ,             .         ,  ,                  .            ,       .
       ,              {94}.        , ,           .
     .  :  1838    ,   ,   ,  ,    ,       [11]{95}.
    .          ,             , , , ,   ,     ,    [12]*.            {96}.
      ,   ,    ,   ,           .     ,     , ,     ,     .      .  ,           ,  ,     {97}.         ,        ,        .      ,         ,     .
      ,       ,         .      ,     ,           .      ,       ,             .
               ,        .              . ,  ,        , ,  ,          .    ,   ,   .  ,              .  ,   ,     ,         . ,           ,      .
           ,       ,             {98}.    ,  ,  ,        .    ,        ,          .    ,              .          ,    ?             .   . ,   ,          ,     ,       ,           ,            .       ,      ,       ,  {99}.
                     .                       ,   ,         .
    ,       ,    ,    , , ,    .      1836 ,        ,              .      ,       .   . ,         ,  ,   ,      {100}.
       ,           ,           ,      .
   ,    , ,      ,       .      : 28 1837          ,        ,     :     ,     ,        {101}
     ,      ,            {102}. ,   :
                       ,        ,      .   ,       ,    ,       ,  ,        ,        {103}.
     ,      ,     .    ,           :     .        ,          .
        ,    ,    ,     .           ,      ,   ,  .      ,   ,   , ,            ,         .    ,  ,      ,                {104}.
      ⅻ,   1838 ,       ,    .               ,     ,         ,   ,   ,    ,       {105}.      ,         .   : ,    ,    {106}.
                 .       ,           ,       .
                 :       ,    ,                   .       ,   ,        ,      ?..           ,          ,         .
         ,           ?{107}.
      ,           ,            ,             .           1837     : ,        ,    . ,   ,   ,      ,  ,    ,    . ,  ,  ,      ,       ,       ,     ,   ,   , , , , , ,    ,      .      .     ,       ,  ,  ,     ,     .  ,    ,      ,       ,          ,   ,      ,          {108}.
      ,      ,           ,     ,   .  :      ,  , ,       ,      养{109}. ,           ,        {110}.           ,       , ,          .                           , , ,    .     ,   ,     ,     .      ,          .  1863    ,       ,   :  ,    .      ,     {111}.    ,      .          ,               ,                 .
    3.          
         1881    :                    ,       ,  ,          .         ,  ,      ,              .     ,  ,              {112}.
    ,      1840 ,      ,            .         .     ,      ,  .              ,        ,             .
    ,     ,        ,   , ,        .    ,        ,   ,      ,     {113}. ,    ,     ,      .                    .     ,        ,     .   (,   ),              ,   ,            {114},          1840 .
                  .        ,     {115}.         ,    ,      .  .            ,    ,             .      .    .        ,     ,      ,         {116},        ,         .
           ,  ,       ;             .   ,   {117},  ,       ,                {118}.  ,     , ,     ,  .   ,    {119}.,  .       .    .   ,     {120}.  , ,       ,         ,    . .      ,           .
     :                 ,         {121}. ,          ,            ,          ,      {122}.  , ,    {123},  .          .               .
              ,         .   ,    ,      ,     .     ,      ,        {124}.                   .
    1848            .     ,  ,       ,       .  ,               .  ,      8-             ,          .     : ,    ,     , ,  ,                       .      , ,       ,   ,  ,       . ,          .   ,      , ,    ,        {125}.
      ,      ,        .       , ,   , ,    ,  .            .  ,       ,        .  ,              ,    ,                 .
             ,       .        .        ,    ,            .  ,            ,   ,     .  .     ,       .  ,       ,      .   ,   ,     ,   .
               .   ,       .
   .      :       ,     ,   ,     ,        .       ,       ,   .   ,         ,         .   ,     , , ,     ,             ,   {126}.
     ,    300   ,     ,    .        ,  ,         ,    ,     .               {127}.
      ,          ,               , .       .                 ,        .   :
        ,            .  ,      ,    ,    ,       . ,        ,       .     ,       ,        ,                {128}.
               .      .   .  , .         ,  ,     ,     .             , ,    ,      {129}.
         . ,          ,   .   ,  ,        ,   ,       ,      ,         .         {130}.
        . ,              .   ,         .      ,  ,    ,     ,       {131}..       ,         .          ,     {132}.
         .           ,    ,     .         ,    .           .      ?            ,          ?            ,        ?
   ,    ,        ,     .     ,         .   ,  ,        , ,  , ,     ,         {133}. ,   , ,               .     ,      (, , , ),     {134}.          ,        {135}.
          ,              .     ,    , ,  , ,    ,              .  ,     ,      ,       ,          ,   .  , ,   ,    ,      ,     ,      ,     .
    , ,    ,    ,  ,      ?  1831 ,           , , ,    .  ,     ,   38 927     18 539 {136}.       .               .        ,                .          ?      12, 14   16  ,   ,        .
   .  :            ,                   ,    ,     ,      .     ,     ,    ,   ,   .     .         .      {137}.
       .    1820- ,      (1848.),     ,       ,      ,   . , ,  1828   ,  ,   ,         .    ,        ,  {138}.
     1848 ,     ,    ,    ,    ,            .      ,   ,  , ,    ,   ,     .       ,    ,     ,    .   ,       .     ,   1840-          {139}.     ,      ,  1843  1844         .       ,     ,          {140}.                 .
      ,    , , ,      .           ,      ,       .        ,  ,           .
      ,      ,       ,   1848 , :   ,     ,       ,    ,   70         {141}.
   ,       ,      ,     .      ,   ,     .   ,        .           .    ,     ,     :
   , ,  ,    ,      ,     ,         
     ,     ,        .   .   ,     ,   ,   ,         , ,    ,      .   ,            .       ,    {142}.
        ,   ,   ,      ,      .         ,           ,       ,,    (  . .){143}.    ,     ?            ?                ,   ,    ?      ,   ,    :
           ,      .       .         ,    ,      ,     ,    {144},   .        ,       ,  .            .        ,          .       ,       {145}.
        .                       .                ,     ,      .  ,              .              ,       , {146}.  1837                  .     ,         .             ,        .  ,                 {147}.
          ,         .    10      ,      ,    :   ,   ?{148}.    ,   ,        {149}. 1827                   . ,    ,         ,        .               ,   ,  ,          .
    :          , ,    ,     .          .         ,     ,     {150}.
                  .    ,    ,               , ,      , ,      .  ,         .
   ,                  ,         1848 .          .            ,   ,            .  ,   ,  !   .                   .    , ,         .       ,        ,      ,  {151}.,   ,    ,           ,             .   ,      ,  , ,  ,       .
                    ,              .    ,  1848          {152}.        ,        ,   .                , ,    ,   ,       .               :
           .   ,        ,      ,   ,  ,    ,     ,       . ,                  {153}.
           ,  ,         .      .           ,               .        ,       .
           ,  ,  1851    :    ?{154},          XIX .
                 ,             ,    .        ,       ,       .  ,   , ,        ,               .       ,           ,    .    ?{155}  !    ,      ,  ,   {156}..  :  , ,    ,        ,  .     ?     ,  ,    ,  ,    ,      .     ?      ,       .       , ,  ,  .     ?{157}.
          ,    ,             .    ,      ,    .                 ,     ,    .             ,       ,      ,     . .  :      ,       ,  ,      .    ?{158}.
     ,         ,        ,       {159}. :    ?      .       {160}.
               . ,   . ,     .
     ,   ,   ,   ,        ,           .      ,     {161}.
      ,     ,     ,   {162}.  ,     ,     :             ,      .         ,               {163}.
    .     ? ,  ,        ,      .           ,         .
      :
     ,   ,         ,    ,    ,            .      ,  :  !,    !,   !{164}
       ,            ,       .    .
      !       ,   . .       ,            ,  .        .    :  ,       {165}.
       ,     ,    .     ,   ,      ,         .               .       ?     ,         .               .    ,  ,        ,        ,      ,   .           ,       .                .
    ,   ,  ,   ,        ,     .     ,    ,    .    .   ,    {166}.
    1850-              .        ,   ,    .      ,  ,   ,         .      .    ,    ,      ,        ,   .
    ,      ,                .            ,  ,   , ,          {167}. . ,         XIX ,      ,    .  ,         ,    .  ,     ,   ,       ,    . ,         [13]{168}.
       ,        ,         .        ,  ,     ,     ,    ( )   ,          :     .    ,     ,         .         ,        :
        ,   ,                ,    ,       .            ,     {169}.
    ,      ,      .               .       ,  ,   ,              ,         .
          ,      ,          .            ,      .      ,            .
                 . ,      ,  ,        .   ,     .     ,              {170}.
           .   ,   ,    ,     .       ,    {171}.
         ,        ,              ,          .
         ,         ,       .     1863      ,  ,          ,           .        ,    .    ,        {172}   . .
         ,     ,     1863  ,             .     ,     , ,   .
        .        ,                .        ,       .         ,  ,   .           . ,       .
      ,           ,                {173}. ,   ,   , ,    , ,      ,         .             .  ,    ,   .      ,     {174}.
   .  :    ,        .  ,     ,     ,   . ,    , ,     ,     {175}
   ,        ,            ,         ,     {176}. , ,    ,      ,     ,       ,    ,  ,          ,       ,   ,      ,   , , ,            ,     ,        .           ,      ,     
       .   ,         ,     {177}.
            ,       ,    .         ,       ,    ,   .   . ,       ,    {178}. ,     ,      ,    ,            .
    4.     
      . , .   .    :             ,                .   30        ,  ,     ;         ,     ;  ,   ,    ,  ,   :        ,        .      ,          ,     ,        ,                ,                ?
     .     ,  ,      ,     ,     ?          ?        ,      ?  ,         , ,       ,     ,    .         ,   ,  {179}
               26 1865 .   ,    , ,                     .  ,          ,   ,         .
    ,  ,    .                  ,               .  ,      1866 ,        (),        . ,       ,       ,    .  . , ,          ,           {180}.       .      ,     , ,  ,       ,          ,    ,          :             ,        ,          [14].     ,   ,    ?   .     .      ?      ,    ,  ,           , ,   ,   ,   ,  , ,     ,   ,    (        )       :             ?..
       ,     ,    {181}.
    .       ,      , ,   ,        .
     1867             ,  ,   .   ,      (    )  ,      .
   , .  :      ,        .      ,       ,        , ,  ,       .           {182}.
    ,    ,       ,         ,           .     , ,       ,        ,  ,   ,        .    ,  ,       ,    ,               .      .  ,  ,    :
         ,       ,    ,       ,   ,        ,  , ,    ?{183}
                 .   ,       ,    .    ,                 {184},.  ,          .        ,    [15]*   ,   , ,   ,           {185}.
     . ,           :              ,     {186}.
    ,    ,   .    ,   ,  ,     .         , .     ,         .     ,     ,          ,      .
   ,              .      ,    ,   ,            ,    .            ,   ,        ,     ,        .         .       ,          .
                   ,        . ,               ,   ,          .     ,      14-  15-   ,  ,             .               .         , ,        {187}.  . ,  ,          {188}.
                      ,      ,   ,        .       , ,  ,               ,     .   1867             ,         ,       ,   :  !        ; , ,          腻{189}
    ,       , , ,  . ,            ,       ,      .   ,  , .     ,  ,                   ,      ,   .       14- ,          ,   ,      ,    ,    .        15- ,       ,        ,         .    ,  .       .  ,      ,         ,   .             ,         ,       .  ,               ,       ,    {190}.
       ,            14-  15- .     :                          . ,                     . ,         ,    . ,   ,     ,     ,   ,  ,        ,      .
      ,    .  ,        ,   .  ,        ,                  .
     . ,                 ,      {191}.
     ,         ,               ,   ,            .     ,           ,      .
     . ,      ,           . .  ,           .   ,      {192}.                         . .         ,        . . , ,      ,  ,              ,     .    ,    ,   , .           ,     ,                   .
   .  , ,    ,             .  ,         .     ,        ,     ,        ,    {193}.
                          .    ,  ,       , ,     ,        . .                        ,             , , {194}.
              1866 ,       .    .            ,     :
    ,         ,  , ,                  ,          ,           ,    ,      ;  , ,     ,     {195}.
     ,          ,     .        ,    ,        .      1863      . .  ,   ,     ,    ,      {196}.
        ,       ,  . ,               ,    .          , ,   . ,        . ,     ,         . ,   ,      .                 . , ,    ,         .   . ,    ,      .       ,      ; ,        {197}.
     . ,       ,  , ,        {198}.  ,   ,     1866  ,     .    ,    ,      . ,   , ,    ,      {199}.
            ,      .  .         ,      .   .            ,            .  .            ,        .
           ,         .   1866  ,  ,     ,     ,     .   .   ,       ,        .    . ,.           ,    {200},        ,    ,      .
      ,            .                       .         ,            .        .          ,                .    :   ,      ,   {201}. .   .    .      1867    ,          .    :            .             ,   ,  ,   ,     .      셻{202}
     .     ,   .         {203}..  : .       ,            ,         , , {204}.
           ,      .  .   .   ,   .     ,       .     .   .   ,    .  .          : ,      ; ,      {205}.
     ,         1869 , 14- ,     ,          ,   . 15- ,       ,         (    !),     .           15- .      ,  ,    .   ,        ,          :
    ,    ,         ;            ;          ;    ,       ;        ,          {206}.
           . ,      ,       ,  ,     ,       .
      15- , .              . ,            ,      ,        {207}.    15-     {208}     ,     ,          {209}.
         , ,      . .     1867      14-  ,        .
   .   . :         ,       ,       ,     ,        ,      ,  {210}.
           1869  .    ,         .   . ,   .   .    ,        ,      {211}.
      ,           ,     {212},          .
            15-      . . .               ,              ,       .    ,        {213}.    ,               .
         , ,     ,    .   .      .    ,       .        ().     ,     15- ,          ().
           ,          .      ,  .   . ,      ,   ,  , ,     ,      .
   ,         ,    .        ,  ,      ,    {214}.
     .    ,   . .     :        :   ,        ,  : .        ; , ,   ,    ,      .       ,  ,   ,        {215}.
                ,  ,   . ,     ,            ,  .  , ,       ,            .
                 .                          .    ,            XIX .  .            ,    14-  15- ,           ,   , ,         .
   ,       ,                ( ,   ).      ,        ,    ,         ,     .              .          ,  ,    ,           .        XIX     ,          ,   ,         ,          .   ,           ,   ,   .                        .
    5.     
     !    .            ?  !        ,             
            ,     .             ,  ,         .         ,         {216},   .
                . ,      [16],,  ,    , .           ,           .          ,     .   1890 ,         2,7 .       :     38,7%,    30,8,  15,6,      2,8%{217}. ,      ,         .        ,      ,       .  1890     ,  ,   ,       .
      ,  ,    ,   ,     ,   ,  ,         .       ,      .        ,     ,     ,     .        ,         . ,      ,     ,   . ,         ,    ,             ,    .   30%   ,       .
   ,      . ,                 ;        ,            , ,  ,    ,  , ,   {218}.
             ,    .     ,         .     ,          .       ,      ,       ,         . .  ,           ,     {219}.
     ,    ,        .                 .  ,        1883 ,               {220}.         1890    ,      ,        :    ,         {221}.
     . ,                      {222}.   ,        ,        . .  ,   1876              ,     {223}.          .        . ,        ,     .   ,  ,            텻{224},      ,      ,    ,      {225}.
        ,     ,     .      ,     ,       . ,      ,       .     , ,     ,     .    , ,       ,            .      ,   ,  ,     ,      ,       .  ,       ,     ,      .               .      ,   1912      {226},         ,      .             , , , ,   , ,  ,     ,   ,    {227}.
    30          ,      14   .      ,  ,         .          {228}.     ,      ,      , .. {229}.
                        [17],         .
       :               ,  ,      .   , ,  :     ?    :   ,    ,    .              ,    ,        ,            {230}.
           ,   ,             .      ,            .    ,    ,      ,       {231}. :   ,     ,  ,     ,   ,      ,   .             ,         :        {232}.
       ,  ,     ,   ,      .
       :         ,    ,  ,     .     25 {233}.
              ,       :        ,    ໻{234}.
    1919 ,             ,        .       ,        {235} . ,           .  :  ,                   .     ,      . ,    ,     ,   ,   {236}.
                  .         ,      ,        .         ,     ,     . . .  ,   ,   ,     ,      {237}.
        ,      ,                        . ,  ,    ,    {238}.  1890 ,       ,           ,    {239}. 32  48       ,       .  7  10        ,      {240}.
      ,      .   1899      , ,  60%  ,      ,       {241}.     ,    ,   9% (14 297  15 704),   {242}.    ,    ,  ,        .
      , .     ,     ,     {243}.  ,       .
    55  ,    . ,      {244}.    :  ,     ,    ,   ;   ,        ; ,      {245}.
     . , ,   ,     ,   ,       ,     .
          ,   .   ,     {246}.,    ,   .                .     ,   (  ),  (   )         . ,  ,    . , ,    ,  ,        ,       {247}.    , ,       .
          ,          . , ,    ,        .      ,        .     ,           ,    ,   {248}.
              ,     ,     ,              .   1940-                   ,           ,  .
   .  :  ,     ,                , ,                 ,   ,  ,   ,             .             {249}.
           ,       ,      167-      ,  {250}.    ,   1938   , ,      72   ,         {251}.
           . ,  ,     .   1881       ,       ,           {252}.     ,    ,     ,    .    1930-        {253}. 1939 ,      ,    350  100  ,      . ,      ,      .
    ,  ,   ,      .            .              ,       .                 .  1902             ,    ,   , ,     .
   ,   ,        ,     ,      .  ,   ,         ? ,   ,   .  ,    .   ?   .       ?  ,   .    ⅻ         .   ? ? ? ?  ? ?  ? ,     ,     ,            . ,             ,      .      ,     .
     ,      .
          ,   . ,     . ,  ,      .     ,  ,     {254}.
       ,    .         :       .     ,   ,        (  ). ,   ,  ,  ,           . , ,       . ,        ,          .
             ,  ,      ,      .                 .
   .  :       .
               72        ,     ,   ..{255}.
        (   ,    )        .  ,   1940 ,       59,5%   ,  10,4%      {256}.   16%        ,              .  ,         ,   ,  ,  ,    .             ,  400       .              .             1960                           {257}.
            ,    ,       ,       , ,   . ,    ,                        10%{258}.,    ,     .                ,        ,   .
    6.   :   
   .  :  ,  ,  ,       {259}.
         ,         .   ,   ,  {260}.
        ,    ,    .   .      ,    ,  ;    , ,       ; , ,   ,   ,   ,      ,      {261}.
     ,  ,      .           ,        ,         .       ,  ,    ,            {262}.
      ,       .      , ,    ,      {263},      .  ,   :  ,     ,      {264},  . .
    ,   ,       ,  ,  ,      {265}. ,     ,  ,     ,     .       {266}.    ,     .                    . ,     ,     ,   .           ,       .          .      ,     1930- ,    .        .
     . ,          . ,    ,  ,   .        ,   ,      .   .        {267}.
     ,    ,       40    [18], .      ,       .                  . ,        ,         ,   ,        .       [19]*          ,       ,     ,   ,        {268}.
      ,      , ,  .  ,       .          ,    ,    ,   . ,          ,      ,     . ,        .   , ,      .
      .   1787                {269}.   ,  ,  ,     {270}.,                ,  .  1793      ,          ,      .  ,     ,             .              .               ,   .    ,    ,     {271}.
      1793   ,     ,    ,        .  ,        ,      (28  20 {272},,  ,   ).  40                ,  .          ,           {273}.      ,      ,  ,      {274}.
                   .  ,        ,   ,     {275}. 1851 ,            ,       ,  ,      .         ,   ,        .           ,   ,               .       ,   .     ;    , , ,    ,        .           ,        , , ,   {276}:
     ,                          .     ,   ,    .   ,      ,     ,      , ,    {277}.
      ,   ,    ,            .     ,        .  ,          , ,         ,   , ,        {278}.
      ,            .    ,       1851         40 .           8 ,         .      ,        ,    {279}.
       ,   ,       .         ,       .      , ,    ,           {280}. , ,    ,    ,        ,        .           .      .     , ,   ,  ,                {281}.   1883  :            ,  ,   ,   ,  ,    ,    ,   {282}.
             ,              ,    ,      .     ,     , ,      ,      .
     ,        ,        .     . ,  ,         ,     .
    ,    ,            .   ,  . ,                      ?:
   1.   ,    ,     .    ,   ,    ,           ,          (7 ).
   2.   ,     ,          (12 ).
   3.        ,           .    .    ,     .        (11 ).
   4.  ,       ,         .   ,        ,      .    ,    .       ,    ? (10 ){283}.
     ,  ,  16- ,      .      ,          ,      ,    .
   5.    ,   ,   .      .    ,        .    [20],,     .     ,           .     ,       .  ,     ,   ,     .   ,       ,      {284}.
         ,   16-    .
            ,          .   ,             ,   .      1831       ,    .      ,         ,    {285}.   ,    ,     {286}.       ,       .    .
   .  :          .     ,    .,  !   ,    .         ,    .     ;    ,     ,    {287}.             ,    .            .  ,            {288}.    ,      ,       ,    . ,     ,      ,            {289}.
     ,            ,     {290}. , . ,       :
     ,   ,        .      ,    ,      ,       {291}.
      ,   ,            ,      ,   {292}.
     ,     ,      [21]*, .             ,           .     :   ,     95%{293}.
                          . ,      , ,   , ,   ,    .            .
   .    ,   ,    : ,      ,        {294}.        :       ,       ,   , ,     {295}.
              . ,   ,    ,       ,     .   ,   .     ,    ,       [22],       {296}.    ,    ,                   {297}.
      [23]*                  .         ,          {298}. 247333  4329 ,        ,      ,    .   ,       ,       ,         .       ,     .      ,     ,          .
   .  :       ,        .       ,    ,   ,      .   1876 [24]**  ,  ,   .            ,   ,         ,        {299}.
                    .              ,            .               .
    7.     .   
       .  :    .          ,      ,  .     ,      ,       .  , ,     ,  ,           .
              .   ,   ,     ,     .        ,    .  : , ,     .      .    ?  ,  .    ,     .  10        .   ,      :  .  : ?  .   ?  ,    ,    ,   :      ,         ?  : ,  .   ?          ,        .  !    .          .     ,          .     ,     {300}.
       .    . ,      ,     ,         {301}.  ,  .    ,            .                    .
    .          ,     ,     ,       .           .    .   , ,    . ,         .
     ,   . ,     ,        . ,        ,  , ,            ,      .         ,       ,                {302}( . . .).
       .  .  ,  ,        ,        .              ,  ,            .
    ,     ,   ?   .     ,  , ,             ,            {303}.
       .    .    1894 . .  ,    ,  ,     {304}.                    1900 .  .   .        ,     ,    . .        ,        .  1894        ,    ,   .
     ,     ,      .  ,  .    ,              .
    1888         ,   ,   1890        ,     {305}.         ,     .       1898 ,  1901          ,    ,       1902, 1908  1918 {306}.
    ,     .      .         .      ,      .   2               .        .  ,     ,    1866 ,   .     .          ,   .     1893   , ,        ,     ,             .
    .  :   10     ,       .                   ,       ,   ,   ,       {307}.   ,       ,    ,            {308}?    ,       ,          .     1895 ,   ,  ,                        {309}.      ,    ,        .
         . :             :    ,           .           .    ,  ,    ,    ,   ,        {310}.
    ,     ,            ,        ,     14-  15-   .   1867          ,      ,                .
   .  :        . 4      4      , ,  ,      {311}.
          ,          .    ,   ,    ,      ,    ,         {312}.
    ,   ,     ,         {313}.
                .       1867    . .   .      ,       ,      ,   .         ,        .  ,       (     )            :     :         ,    ,       .         ,            ,        ,   ,          ?{314}
            ,       XIX             .  ,       ,     14-  15- ,    1890 .  1892     ,        ,         . .     .    ,         ,      .   : :         ,        , :     ,    ,     ;   ,    , ,    ;       ,    .            ,    ,      {315}.
           ,     .  ,     ,      .  ,                          ,          .
     1893 ,        ,    ,       ,   ,        ,    : ,     .        ,       , , , , ,     , ,     ,    .       ,        ,     ,      .
               ,    ,   .      ,      ,           .
    1893   ,       ,         1875 [25].                  . ,     ,      ,    ,  ,       .
     XIX        ,     .        , ,   .    ,        ,     ,             .     ,           .
     1898             ,    ,   ,  ,     ,   .               .     ,  ,           ,   {316}.       ,        .
    1899          .               ,        .    1899               {317}.  ?    .      , ,  ,        .   ,   ,                  {318}.
   .        ,             ,   {319}.                  ,   .
        1899     .              ,           .         ,      ,   ,        .            .     :          ,       {320}.
       .      ,   .  .       . , ,  ,     ,   . .    .      ,          {321}.
        ,             .             ,     ,        .           ,         .
        ,   , , ,      .      ,           .                 ,             ,         .
   ,  .        ,    .    XIX  XX        ,           , ,     .   .         . ,   ,                .  1899   .              .    10          {322}. 1898  .      ,  ,               {323}.
    1899 ,  .      ,           .               ,   ,          ,   .         :   ,          ,       {324}.
       ,    ,            .     ?                 ,         ?{325}     .
                            .
   .    :                            .   ,   ,         ,    ,     {326}.
          1899    ,    ,    .   ,            2     .    ,       ,        , ,   ,    , , , ,   {327}.
    ,         .      .   .  ,        ,              ?        ,  ,                   ,     .
         ,     ,    .       ,     ,         .    XX     ,  , .       ,  ,        .            .                  ,             ,      ,       .   ,              .   ,    .      ,         [26]          .
                 ,     ,       .         .      ,   ,      .         .    1901   ,    .     .      ,         ,   ,   .   .      .   ,   ,   . ,       {328}, ,          .     ()      {329}.         ,     ,    {330}.
     ,    ,         : ,      ,      ,          ,   . ,          ,   {331}.
    1903       ,  ,           . ,   1903    ,   .  ,    ,         .   ,     ,           {332},  ,   ,            {333}.
      1903                     .         4,5   ,   {334},         ,        40    {335}.   .             ,   ,  .        ()    ,            {336},    . .  :  ,             ,     ,   ,      {337}.
    ,          .     , ,    .     ,        ,       . 24 1903        ,              .     ,   ,         ,    ,    . ,   ,          ,            {338}. ,  ,       ,    ,     ,  ,      .         ,      ,   ,      ,    {339}.
            ,       .       ,   .     ,  , ,  , ,  ,    1898     ,   ,             .
   .         ,           .  ,  ,    ,      :
       ,   . ,                .          ,   . ,    ,    ,  ,   ,   ,   ,     ,  {340}.
             ,       ,     .              .    ,    ,      , , ,  ,     .
           .                  .              .         ,       .            ,          ,        .
     . ,   ,  :                ,         ,   {341}.
            ,             .   ,    , , ,            .
      ,            ,     ,           ,        酻{342}. ,    !       ,         ,         {343}.
    8.     
       ()       1900      .  ,     :              .   ,   ,   (       )  ,       .             ,    ,      5 ,             .                .      ,       .   . ,                  ,     .   , ,     ,      .  .    ,      (, ,       ),       .  ,   ,,   ,         ,     텻{344}.
           ,    ,     ,   .            {345}, ,    . , ,                     .            .     ,  ,        ,  ,    ,    ,         . ,  ,         ,          ,    ,       {346}.       ,      ,       ,  ,             .
     ,   ,          1890 .              .     ,         ,           .      ,     ,            ,       .
           90- . XIX ,  , ,        .                    .
    ,           ,      ,           1868   {347}.            .  ,            ,   1890        {348}.        190    20. {349}.              :
              ,              .   ,     ,    ,       .    ,         ,      ,    {350}.
     ,   ,   ,  ,   ,    .  1890   4. ,   ,  1.   {351}.          ,       .               .   , ,     .             .           , ,         ,            .
         ,    ,       . .                , .     .    ,                   :
             ,                ,    {352}.
             ,      250          {353}.  ,   1892 ,        .     .      .  :
                  ,   ,    .     ,      ,          ,    ,     ,       ,     .     ,    ,      ,      {354}.
    .             (      )      {355}.
        ,  ,       ,       .    ,     ,      ,        {356}.            ,  .      .   {357}.   ,   ,      , , ,    {358}. 1893                  ,        {359}.
     ,    , .      ,    ,         .                       1893 .              ,          [27]   {360}.    .               {361}.
     ,     ,        .  ,            {362}.  ,                      .  ,    ,       {363},  300        , , {364}.               ,   .           .
                ,     .     .           ,        ,    ,   : ,    , ,        ,  ,     ,     , , ,       ,  .   ,              ,     .
     ,    ;  ,    ,                 .         ;  ,        ,   ;              ;      ;             ,    ,    ){365}.
                       :   ,              .
        ,        {366}.
          1895   ,           ,          .    ,               .       .        ,  ,        {367}          (),   ,   {368}.
     ,        ,           .  ,  , ,     ,      ,   .
             ,                  
           .   , ,      ,       ,      {369}.             ,              .  , ,     ,  {370}.  ,                   .               {371}.
     ,         ,   ,  ,  .     1895 ,      ,          ,      {372}.   30 ,   12 .  1896          ,       .                 .          .    ,         .      ,      ,             ,     1899 {373}.  . ,     . ,         .     .        ,     {374}.
        ,          .          .      ,          {375},         .   ,    ,              .       ,    , ,  ,  .         ,           . ,   ,      ,          .       ,  .        .   ,  , ,     {376}
       ,  .      .        ,    .        .        .            .   .    22 ,      ,      ,       .  10   .       ,  ,   ,        ,         .  ,           ,         .         ,    ,        .               .      57   .            .  63         .        ,          .
          .        .                 .          .  ,  ,    ,       ,      .    . ,          90 .     ,    ,      ,    89 .
    .      , ,      .  ,   ,         . ,    ,   ,               .
    9.  ,      
     1868 ,   .      , ,           ,      .      ,     ,  ,   .   1870  70%    ,      {377}.      .           ,     30  {378}.
              ,             .        .              ,   .     ,         ,    ,     .   1866      (),          ,    .              {379},   ,                  {380}.      1868 ,  .    ,     ,         . .                   .
          ()  1869     .        ,     ,     ,    ( ) {381}.   ,  ,        ,         ,      .            ,      . {382}   ,    .  .                   .  ,           ,     .
        .  ,      ,   ,      . , ,  , ,      ,            .
   8 1868   :  ,            ,        , ,  ,       ,         ,       {383}.
                ,             ,   .       8-          .  1868  1870           ,   ,      ,    ,     .
    .                .        .            .          ,    ,             {384}. ,    . ,        .
        . ,              ,       .  ,      ,         ,    ,              ,      .       :      ,         ,     .       1869   .      ,      {385}.   .    ,   ,     ,     ,       ,     ,      ,         {386}.
     .   .                 .        , , ,        ,   , .   .      ,        .  ,       ,               {387}.
     ,        .             , ,  .    , , ,                . ,  ,            .   .                    ,            ,   ,  ,      ,    .   . ,  ,     ,   ,     ,     ,          {388}.  .    ,      ,       .    ,   , ,   , :  ,      .       .
      ,   {389}     . ,     ,          .       ,      ,       .  ,         ,       ,            .    ,  .     ,         .    ,     ,      .
              .        , ,          ,     {390}.
               .    ,                ,     .   . ,   ,     {391},     .
     ,   ,     ;  ,     ;    ,    ,   ;   ,  , , ,       ,      , ,           ,          {392}.
             . , , ,       ,    ,             ,           . ,       ,          , , ,      ,      ,    ,         .
               XX ,           .  19091910 .     20      ,             .      ,                 .          .                 146 ,   ,     ,        .  ,       ,     .
           .         '             .      ,     ,        .   ,   ,     .      8 , ,        ,     ,    ,     , , ,  ,      ,   .     ,       .              {393}.
      '         ,         , ,  ,      ,       ,      .        ,        .           . ,                       .    XX     8.  ,  2      .         ,      ,       ,         .       ,             .        ()         .  . ,             .
     ,     , ,            {394}.          ,    .  :  ,      ,,                      ,                 {395}.
     . ,                  ,           {396}.           , ,        ,        .    1919                      ,       . ,         .  ,         ,   , ,                 ,  6.  ,         {397}.
                  .
                .     ()          XIX ,    .   XX    .       ,     1913 ,    ,        (   100 ),     {398}.
    : ,   ?       ,      ,       ?     ?         ?{399}.
       ,       ,   .  ,         .    ,  ,        .     ,     {400}.
            .         ,      ,    .        , ..     ,     .   ,   , :            .    ( . )    ,     ,       .           ,     {401}.
     .     ,    .              .
       , .        ,     .  ,          ,           .          ,       .           ,  ,       {402}.             , .  , , ,            .  ,                 ,        {403}.
    1915              :     {404}.     ,    , ,  ,   ,     .           ,      . ,   . ,      X. .      ,      .
     ,        ,      .             ,        ,           .      X.      .      ,    ,              .  ,      ,          .  :    , ,   ,  ,    ,   .   ,               .     ,       ,       {405}.
           .   ,         (,,         ).            ,           ,               .    ,  ,     .                ,     .    ,   ,            ,        {406}.
                       .              .   ,             ,     ,       .         .        ,  ,   ,  ,       .    ,   19- , ,               .
                    .      ,  ,          .             .  ,  ,   . ,   250       ,           腻{407}.
     ,        ,      .
    10. -
    1848 ,         ,      .     1848 ,    .   . ,  ,            {408}. 1852     ,          . ,      ,     .               ,          .      ,   ,  .           .        {409}.
    1900 ,       (),      .           ,         .               .  1900                .
   ,         ,     .       ,      {410}.  ,      ,  ,    ,              {411}. 1908       . 8    ,       ,          .              {412},  1919      (     ,   ), ,    ,       .    ,  ,  ,   ,   ,      ,       {413}.
        ()             ,  , ,     ,       .    ,      ,   1905 .     ,  ,              .      ,      .   ,     ,    ,   ,          .
                 ,           ,         .         ,       .          ,  ,  ,   ,       .      ,   , ,           ,     .    ,        , .  :      ,  {414}.  ,                  .              .    :      , ,          .        .  ,    ,  .       {415}.
                    ',    .           .       ,   ,   .    ,       ,   .             ,      .
       ,     . ,   1920-       ,   {416}.        ,        .         ,        . 
            ,       .            ,  [28].,         ,        ,      ,    ,       .       {417},            60 .         10          55   .                  .
       1853 ,           1877 .             ,       {418}.                  1 1886.          .               .       . ,  ,  ,           .     ,      {419}.               ,        ,      {420}.
                 .    :     ,   {421}.
         ,        ,      ,  ,                 .    ,  . ,     ,      ,       .  ,                  ,          .   ,    ,   ,   ,        .      ,   ,            .   ,       1886 ,   ,        ,   ?{422}
      ,   . .    ,   . ,   . ,      ,        {423}.
            ,        .      ,                  ,   1905 .            ,  ,    ,          . ,   ,   ,     ,                     ,       {424}.
    ,        ,   ,     ,        ,       {425}.
    20-          .    ,     1917   ,  ,             .           1922       (),      .        ,           ,       {426},   ,         1939 {427}.   1942 .  ,    , ,               1880- 
          ,     {428}.  
        1862 .   ,    ,  ,   ,      ,         .            .          ,       .       ,   .                 , , .   62            {429}.
      78 ,    ,        ,    ,      ,        .
     .             ,     , ,  ,             . ,     1929   ,  ,  :         .    ,     25 .   ,    ,      .
         ,        ,    .      ,      .     ,   ,    {430}.
      1930- .       ,  ,    ,       .  ,      ,    .              .   ,   ,      ,        .      ,      ,        ,       ,      {431}.
     .  :  ,              ,       {432}.
                   .       :  ,   ,   ,    ;       ; ,     ,  ,     ,          {433}.
        ,   ,       ,       1934 ,  ,   ,      {434}.
    ,    ,       .     ,   ,           .   ,   ,  , :  ,    ()      .   :   ,   , , ,    ,   ,    , .  , ,       ,    ,    ,     {435}.
         ,  ,   ,     ,     ,          ,  ,    .      .       .              ,   .     {436}.
        ,    ,  {437},       .
     ,               ,      .    ,      ,                .   ,     ,         .      ,      :
    ,   ,
     .
       ,
     {438}.
        .             : ,    ,  ,                  ,       : ,     ,  ,                ?   ,      , , ,      ,    , ,     ,   ,     ,    {439}.
             ,            ,         .    ,      ,   ,   , ,       . 
     1867        ,    ,            . ,        .               ,                 .                      ,       ,       {440}.
    1914       .           ,      .               ,        {441}.     ,    ,       1919 {442}.       .
   1919      ,      .  .
   , ,          .  ,    ,             ,       .    ,     28 1919        {443}.          .
    1890 ,   ,        ,      3228 ,    2500    50  .               ,       ,   ,             {444}.
             ,   ,     ,        ,       ,       {445}.   ,  ,         (      )    ,   .  1919                .   ,        ,                 .            ,      ,   ,       .       ,     ,       .   ,        .   ,   ,              . ,             .
           ,    ,      .   1927.       {446}.
     XX   , ,      .                    ,          .  1936          ,         .
     : ,      ?     ?   ,      ,  :       .       {447}.  
        1964    74 .         60        .  ,          ,  .       16 ,         .              ,    1906           {448}. ,      ,      ,  ,      ,     .  ,      ,        .               .       {449}.
    16             .        ,     ,   .           ,            {450}.               .     ,           ,   {451}.
    1912 ,       ,     ,      ,  ,    .      .     ,       ,  35%    7   .  1/5    12   .      .    40   ,        ,     .    ,              .      {452}.
   .        .   ,            .        .
   .  :      ,    .    , ,    ,  , ,   ,        ,    .   ,     . ,    ,       ,      {453}.
          ,              . , , , 1916              .       ,  .      ,         .   .  :        ,  ,            {454}.
            168   ,     .           ⅻ{455}.       ,   ,       ,   ,    {456}.
        ,        ,       .     , ,      .   :       ,            ,    ໅    ,     ,       {457}.
         ,    ,           .       .                  .       ,  ,   ,        .                          .
    1937          {458}       .     ,      ,             .  1948      ,   ,      .   ,    ,   ,   ,    ,            ,      ,  ,  셻{459}.
           ,    ,      ,    .   ,  ,  ,      . .  ,                  ,      ,     {460}.
      , ,     ,           .
               ( )        ,   ,    (    ),          .      ,   ,                    {461}.  ,    ,   ,     ,    ,     .   1951          .   ,   . ,     ,     ,  ,        .    19-    ,      {462}.    , .      :      ,            ,       ,   ,   .         ,    :
    ,   !    ,         .    ,             .  , ,   ,    ,     ,   .      , ,        ,   ,     ,     .  ,        ,       19 ,      ,       ,              ,  {463}.
          [29] (       )              ,  .        .                 ,          .   ,   . ,      ,     {464}.,     ,      ,      .           ,  ,  {465}.
                   ,         .     . ,   ,    , , ,       ,   .  ,            ,    ,      {466}.
     .       ,    .  ,   ,     ,  .    ,   ,      {467}.         . ,          . 
      ,       .         ,    .       ,        .       ,           {468}.    20 ,             ,       .   ,        ,           1949        {469}.
                     .     ,  ,   ,       .    ,     ,    ,       1930-   {470}. ,   , ,      ,               ,  , ,   ,      .         ,       ,            .              {471}.
                ,   ,   .        ,             . .  ,           ,          {472}.
             ,       ,    ,        {473}.               {474}.    , ,       ,      , ,   .  ,       ,              .    ,  ,               ,                   {475}.
         ,   ,   ,        ,         .       ,   ,            ,         ,  ,        ,  ,   {476}.
              ,        ,    .        ,      ,      ,      .       ,           ,    .      1955    10      .     ,      . .  :
       ,    ,   .       , , ,    .     .        .     {477}.
    ,    ,        .      ,  ,     ,         .    ,     ,          ,         ,           .  ,      , ,         ,        ,  ,     .  ,       ,      . , , ,   ,      .  ,       ,   ,   ,      ,,    ,    .     ,  ,  ,     ,   ,        ,        {478}.
                .       ,    .      ,    .
    11. ,      
               ,      ,    .    .            {479}.   ,                   .               ,     .     ,  :       ,               .
               ,  ,   ,    .    ,       ;                  .         ,           ,  . ,  455 ,   19301967 .  , 405  {480}.
                ,  .          ,           .                       ,      .              ,      ,        .  ,                .        ,     ,  ,    .     ,            , ,    ,           .   1974.   17-   ,       10 .        ,        {481}.
                  ,        .      , ,  ,   ,       ,       .      ,              ,             .                {482}.
    ,    ,       ,    1970~   ,             .   {483},   1975.,    .                 ,       .      ,  ,         , ,      ,     .                   ,         ,       .    ,    ,               ,     .          .
               .      , ,                 ,     .    ,  ,       ,         .   1978.,       ,         .     ,            ,        ,           .
   ,            ,  ,           .   XIX               .          ,            .         ,   ,    ,       .
         ,     .       ,        ,          .              .  ,    ,       ,           .         ,     ,     {484}.
             ,      .  ,        ,    ,            .     1866 , ,          .                ,   {485}.         1871   .  ( ),        :    ;   9 ;  ,   ;          ;          ;    ,     ;     ,     ;     ,    ;   ,   ,   ,     ;        ,    ;      ;   ,     养{486}.
   ,           .  ,              , ,     .      , ,   ,          .            ,     ,    {487}.               .
              .             .     .     ,         ,            .     ,           .     ,     ,         ,     .
         ,         .       ,      ,    ,        .    ,     {488}.        ,         .       ,     ?             ?             ,    ,     ,           .
               ,  , ,        .          ,            .   , ,        .       ,             ,    .            {489}.
        : ,      ,       .  ,  1976        ,        ,     {490}.            ,         .
     ,              .       ,  ,  .                1953 .         ,         .  ,   ,   ,    {491}.      ,  ,  ,      ,       .  ,          ?    ?..                     ,     ,    , ,   {492}.     ,       ,           ,      ,     .   ,  , ,    ,   ,      .
    ,       ,   ,     .     :    : ,     , ,     ,  ,  .       .    .   ,  {493}.     ,     ,  90%        {494}.   ,     47%{495},  ,       .
                    ,    .    , ,        {496}. ,     , ,       5%    {497}.                ,    .    ,         .
        ,  ,   ,       ,             .                 .  22      12  ..       ,  ,   . ,    .  95   26%    {498}.    22    ,         ,   ,     :                  ,  ,             ,        {499}.
   , ,     ,    .           ,   ,   1918           .      ,       .        ,   ,         .  ,          ,          .        ,     {500}.    ,   ,        ,       ,           .
      ,    ,        ,  :     .  ,   ,     .      ,             {501},   ,      ,      ,     .     [30]   ,   ,            .        {502}. ,   ,    ,     ,        ,               .  ,         ,  ,      ,     ,    {503}.
    ,   , ,  ,     .   ,       :    .        ,        ,         .            ,        .     ,         ,     .            ,          .       ,        .
    1920-    ,     ,      14 {504}. ,            ,      .  ,              ,                  {505}.
       ,  ,      .       ,                    ,     {506}. ,       ,           .        ,         ,            {507}.        ,      ,    .   ,       ,         .
              ,     .   ,      ,   ,         ,    .               .              ,        .   ,    .   ,            ,  .       .
   , ,    ,        ,    .       ,   ,   1836.,     {508}.     ,       . .  :   ,    ,      ,           {509}.  ,          {510}.
              ,      {511}. .       ,   1895,    ,  ,   18651895 .     .  .  ,     ,      , .   ,   ,       ,  ,      ,  ,                   .              ,              ,    .          ,        ,      {512}.
               .            .        ,     . ,         .    ,           .                 {513}.         ,  ,    , ,     ,        ,    .
                 .  ,      ,    .   ,         ,         .   ,     ,             .     ,     ,         .       ,               .
   ,          ,               .    ,               {514}.         .     ,  ,             .   ,   ,          ,  ,     ,            ,              {515}.,   ,        ,      ,     .    1872 ,      ,      ,    .              ,    {516}.
       ,     ,         .   ,         ,     ,    .             .    ,       ,     ,           .
   .  :  ,       .          .      .               .     ,        .         .    .            ,      .        .        ,      ,   ,   ,          ,        {517}.      , ,  .               .     ,              ,       {518}.
             ,        ,   ,         .  ,        , ,   ,    . ,   ,   ,   ,   ,     .               ,    ,     ,      ,    ,     ,   养{519}. ,  ,       ,        , , {520}.
        .             ?            .   XIX .       ,    ,  ,          .  ,     ,       ,           .     ,   ,            :   ,   .       . , ,         ,       {521}.
             .   ,   .       , ,            , ,       ,          .    , ,   ,     ,    .              . ,   ,    ;             ,       ,         .              ,                {522}.
                ? ,  ,      .            ,      .   ,           ,      .        ,         .   ,             ,            . ,   ,          ,      ,     .   ,      {523}.
               .            .          ,     .  ,   1931      , ,   1889 1929          . 37,7%    , 5,8     , 7,1   , 1,8   ,  24,2%     ,      .   , 16,7%     ;  6.7%-  {524}.
           ,    ,                 .  1904                         . ,   ,    ,            ,    .   ,    ,      ,           {525}.   ,      ,  ,       ,    {526}. 1892 ,      ,  ,     ,     ,         ,     .            ,    ,   ,   ,   {527}.
             .   ,      ,        ,      .       ,           .  ,   ,        ,      .        .
                ,   , ,    .   ,          ,       10. {528}.,     ,    .                 ,   ,  ,   ,    ,  ,     .       ,     ,             .        :        ,   ,      ,     .  .         ,  ,             ,    {529}.   18 1915           : ,  , 17.  ,  ,          ,  .         ,     ,        ,    .    ,         {530}.
              ,                 .         ,   ,       .          ,           .  .       ,       .  1892          ,  .      ,  ,      ,      .  .            .   ,    .   ,      .    ,                      {531}.
               ,          {532}.                .   .      ,    ,   ,       .               ,        .     ,        .     1904         :                  ;      ໅    , ,    ,                ,  , {533}.
       ,     ,    ,      .  1904                  .    ,    ,          .                   {534}.
    30   ,   .      ,         .   ,   1922             ,       . .  :     . ?         ?          1922          . ,  !     ,   {535}.        .        ,      . . .  .        ,         .                    .
               ,   1930          ,    {536}.     ,       .  ,   ,        ,      ,    ,           {537}.
     ,     ,    ,        .  ,       ,         .  ,   ,        ,       ,   .  ,          , ,             .     ,     ,        ,    ,  {538}.
    1930      ,           ,              ,     .       40.     :       ,       ,        ,    ,              ,         .          ,      ,      ,        ,       .         ,      ,    .   ,             .             . ,      , ,     ,           {539}.
         ,      .         .            ,             .             40 .             ,             .                  .          ,       . ,             .
                 ,      ,          .             , ,              ,       .  ,            . .  :  ,   , ,  ,  ,   ,    ,  ,            ,      {540}.
         ,         ,     ,     .   1894    ,                 .   ,   ,       .   ,     ,    ,   ,         ,          ,     ,     {541}.
       1970-       .  ,            . ,  ,          :           ,        ,          .  ,       ,     ,  ,  .          .   ,    {542}.
        ,     ,     ,       ,      .    ,       ,     14-             ,      , , ,        .
       ,        ,       ,  .  ,   ,        , ,       ,      .        ,      , : ,   .   .   .   .    .           ,        ,   , ,  ,      .   ,  ,       ,      60-                    ,  {543}.
       ,      ,   .      ,    ,        ,    ,       .         .    ,    ,     ,       ,          .        ,  ,    ,      ,            . ,   ,        ,        ,          ,    {544}.  ,  ,    ,           ,       ,  ,   .   ,    {545}.   ,        .        ,         .       ,      . ,                   ,     .
             .          ,              ,     .               , ..       ,         ,       .               ,    .
     ,      ?        ,        ?  ,   ,  , ,  , ,   ..,   ,   ,       ,        .      ,               ?     , ,   :    ,        .  ,            ,           .   , ,  ,    ,           ,         ,          .
             .   ,               .        , ,            . ,         ,  ,     ,          .
                   ,            .    ,        ,     ,        ,   ,        ,      .    ,    ,      ,    .
        ,     ,     .      ,              .  ,   ,         ,    .            .    ,           ,   .           ,    .
     ,   ,  ,            ,      ,        .                   , ,   .           .
      ,         ,          .           ,         .          ;         ,          .           .           ,         .                                 .
    12. ,       
     XIX     ,      .         ,           .  ,  ,            ,     ,   . ,        ,      ,          .     ,  1970 ,          ,     ,         .
        ,    ,   ,         .  ,           , ,  ,            .                  ,             .  , ,      ,     .        .                   .
                70- ,     .        ,               .   1973         .       ,          ,    .
              .         ,     .     ,  ,   ,         ,       ,    ,         :                    .                       .           .
   ,              ,      . ,           ,        .               ,                . ,  ,             .         ,              .
          ,         ?    ,    ,       ,    .   , ,    ,   ,  80%          {546}.            .         70-    ,          ,      ,         .      ,    ,     .          ,          ,  ,        .
           .       ,     ,     ,    .      ,   ,       ,    ,          ,    ,   .    ,        , ,   ,    ,                         {547}. ,        {548},     ,        .      ,  ,          ,       ,     . .  :  ,          ,      ,   ,      .       ,    {549}.
                 ?   ,           ,   ,      .       ,     ,   .   , ,    ,            .
             ,        ,   .       ,       ,     ..              .      ,           ,         .
        70-                      .  1977           ,         .  , ,   ,          ,         .    ,   ,    ,  ,            .   ,           ,   ,           .
       , ,   ,    .   1844             ,       :  {550}, {551}.
   , ,      . ,           ,        .     ,   50-  XIX ,       ,    ,      {552}.     ,  ,          ,            :       {553},   ,        {554}.
           .              .                  ,   .   ,           {555},          .
     ,          ,         .  70-  XIX ,           ,       .  ,   1873.,   ,  ,       , ,   , .  ,    ,  ,       ,        ,    {556}.
                      . ,           ,          ,    .  ,                         .             .              ,        . ,      ,     ,        .             ,      ,                 .
     XIX        .           ,    ,       .  1890      ,  ,    {557}.         ,        .       ,       .              .             ,         .
    1905              ,      {558}. 1906     ,            .                ,        ,     ,  {559}.                 .  ,                   .
               ,      ?         ,     ,           .    ,    ,   ,          {560}.    . ,         ,       ;           ,      .            ,         . , ,     ,    ,          .   ,            ,            {561}.
              ,        ,          .            ,    ,             ,                 .          ,    .     ,   ,        .                 .          ,   ,   ,    ,       {562}.,      ,      .
                 ,      ,  ,         .                .      48 ,  11 .                ,          . ,     ,      ,            .
           1912 ,               {563}.       ,   .    ,      ,  ,       ,            .         ,            .     ,      ,   ,   .
      ,             ,  .
         ,  28-       .   ,         ,    .   ,       ,     {564}.
   .  :      .               .      ,    ,      .     ,        .     ,   .    .   ,   ? ,   ,         . !{565}.
             .             .
     ,   ,  , ,     ,      .     ,  ,    ,     ,  {566}.
                  ,              .        ,      ,     ,      .                  ,     {567}.              . ,  1914 ,           ,  ,     ,    .    {568}.
    ,             .              ,           .              , ,        ,     ,  .  ,  ,        ,    {569}.    ,    , ,     .      ,      ,             {570}.
           ,        ,       ,      ,       .   ,        ,         .               .
      XX         .         .              ,              .  ,    ,     .          ,  ,   {571}.
    1919           .  ,           (),         :    ,   {572}.            {573}        .  ,      ,      .          ,    .                 ,             {574}.
    1932      ,    26      ,            {575}.        . , , , , , , ,         ,       {576}.     ,        .  , ,   ,           .
                    ,      .  1939           ()   .  :
    ,   ,       ,      ,  ,   ,              {577}.
            ,            .     :   ,    ,      ,      ,    ,    ,          {578}.
               ,   .      ,         ,     .                    .
          70-       .     ,     ,            .     ,       ,               .           ,            ,   ,  .
         ,      ,        ,  ,    ,   [31]   .    ,       ,            .    1973 ,    ,  ,     .           .       .     , 12 ,   , 14 ,   ,       {579}.      . ,   ,    ,    ,    ,        ,     {580}.
                       ,   ,    ,       ,     .    ,   ,      ,      .  ,    ,         .   ,        {581}.
              .     11     20    .  ,     ,   ,       ,      .  ,           .   , ,       .  .   18 ,      ,         ,      {582}.      ,    ,     {583}.         ,       .   ,          1933    7686 .         ,  5.   {584}.    ,     ,         .    ,   ,   ,   1964   65% ,    ,     35%  {585}.
           ,        . 18   ,   ,  ,          70- .      ,    ,            .     ,   ,    ,    ,       ,   ,     {586}.,   ,      ,           {587},    60.        .
            ,   ,                 ,      {588}.
               .   ,    ,   16.   8.     1972     {589}.        .    ,        ,     100.  200.       {590}. ,               250. {591}.  ,    ,  ,            ?
     ,          ,   ,          . ,         ,  1976   24%      {592}.   ,     ,             {593}.   ,  ,  ,     ,       {594}.       .      ,    ,    ,                     .        ,       ,      .  ,   ,       ,         !
    ,           .    , ,    .          ,   1970        , 20%          {595}.     {596}. , 43% ,   ,   ,  {597}.
          ,      1939 .             ,       {598}.          ,    {599}.         .          1946    ,   50-       {600}.      150     ,    20-      60- {601}. 70-   35%        {602}.   ,         ,              19.     ,   ,     ,        10  20  ()         ,     {603}.
     1970-         .            .               .        ,        ,     .    ,   ,           .       ,     , ,        .
         70-  ,  ,   ,    .   ,      1974   ,  , ,     ,     .       ,     ,  1975     ,       ,  ,   40%       ,  {604}. 30%           {605}.
     1977       .    ,  ,        ,        .         ,      27-   .           ,      .    ,        ,       .         .
               , ,   .         .  ,       ,         ,             ,      .           ,          .      ,      ,   . ,            ,          ,    .     .
    13.     .   
      ,     ,     ,  , , ,     ..,               {606}.      ,            ,      . ,        ,           .   ,     :   ,    .    ,       {607},    . , , , ,    ,       .
    ,    ,    ,          .         ,             .              ?              ?
          ,       ,         ,      ?          ,        ?            ,                 .     ,         ,  ,     ,  ,  .
                ,  ,      .            .  ,              .      ,     ,             ,          .           ?           .        ,      ,       .         , ,    ,     .         ,          .  ,           .        ,    ,        .
      ,    ,        ,          ,   ,   ,   . ,             . ,       ,     ,              .         ,         .
          ,    {608},      ,      ,      .                    .  ,       ,           ,     ,        .            ,       ,          .
    ,          ,        1973    .         , ,    ,     .     ,  , ,      ,   .  ,        ,          ,     , ,  ,   ..   ,      ,         ,     ,  .         .    , ,      ,        ,      .     ,     ,       .
               .               .                 .    :           ,      .      ,      ,     .     ,    ,    .     ,    ,     ,    .   , , ,        {609}.
         ,    , ,  ,   ,   ,  ,     .   ,   ,   .   ,         ,     .   ,           .        .     ,   ,          ,    ,    .             , , ,     {610}.
           ,        ,    .       ,   ,          .
    :                ,      ,       ,    {611}.
       ,     ,      ,       . ,       ,         ,         {612}.                 .   , , ,    .
    :      , ,  ,     ,     ,         ,      .     ,   (     ),   ,         .   ,    ,      ,         .         {613}.
                   .         .         ,    ,           .         ,       ,      .
        ,       ,         .     ,         ,  ,        ,        .   XIX     ,   .  ,         .
       ,               .             .      . ,         ,               {614}.
        ,        ,    ,    .    ,    , ,  ,  .        ,    .  ,    ,      ,     ,           ,       .     ,    (   ),         ,  .        ,  , ,         .
   ,    ,         .      :         .            ,     .            .    ,   ,            .       XIX   ,             ,        .      ,           .
              ,   XIX           .   ,          , ,    ,    ,    .                .       ,                .      ,   .   ,         .
                  .          ,          .        ,  ,    .  1903        ,   ,        ,  :
           ,     ,   ,      .      , ..       .            ,     ,      {615}.
    ,   ,    ,    .            ,    ,       {616}.
   ,       ,  :     ,     ,        ,     .       ,         {617}.        .           .                 ,        ,       ,          ,   .         .           ,   ,   ,    ,      .
          ,  ,   ,  ,           .       ,         ,         .        .     ,           ,  .    , ,  ,     ,     ,    .  ,  ,        ,     .        ,        .      ,      .  ,          ,   ,         .    .   1920 :     ,        ,        .              ,          {618}.
    ,    ,      ,    .  ,    ,       .    ,    ,      ,    ,        .      ,   ,    ,      .     ,          ,      ,  ,    ,  ,     .       ,                  ,             .
                              .            ,                .
                 . ,    ,          . ,             .       ,        .  , ,           ,    ,    .  ,     ,     ,         .       . ,    1974     .   ,    ,    :
              !         .   .           .   ,   ,    ,    {619}.   ,        ,                .  ,           .               ,     {620}.          ,         .  ,           ,                .
   ,   ,   ,   ,    : ,     .       ,       , {621}.
   ,       ,   ,     ,     ,       .    ,           ,          .
        ,     .         (1940){622},        (1969){623}    ,         ,  .     ,     ,                .      ,     ,      ,        ?     ,             ?
            ,             ,      .     ,         ,         .  ,        .
       ,          ,     .      .      ,        {624}.
     ,         ,           .     ,             .        ,     .          ,        {625}.
            .     ,       ,    (87%  ),       ,      .
                 .      .
   .  ,          ,  ,          {626}.
           ,           . , , ,   ,       ,        . ,     ,      .       ,               {627}.
                    28,2%     {628}.                   .
            ,                  .  ,          ,          ,      . ,    ,          .   ,  ,    , ,  ,           ?          ,     ?           .   , ,  .         ,   ,    ?     ,  . .    :     ,     ,   , , ,    ,       ,       , , , , {629}.,          .
   ,  ,   ,       ,        .                  ,     .            .    , ,   ,                 .  , ,          .     ,        .           煻{630}.              ,   .      ,      .        ,      ,   .     ,  ,        .      .      ,       , , , 
      ,   ,          .  1910 ,        ,      .  1920     ,   1930      60%{631}.            ,        .  1960  1/3           {632}.  ,        ,            .       13%{633}.
               .             ,      .            ,        .              .
    50         ,     ,   .      .      ,      .                    ,       .           ,         ,    .         ,            1976   2732   ,  2/3     2. {634}.               ,  1976   40%        .       ,       ,    ,       .       ,          ,    .
           .   41%    .  ,           .   ,              .
       ,      .  ,       ,              (,  )      (    ..)?          .
              , ,            {635}.  , ,      ,        .  , ,     ,               .     :     ,           .              .       ,    ,      .                    .         (..     ),         .        ,    ,     {636}.
          ,                 .     ,    ,    ?
          ?     .
    ,   ,    ,           ,                .      ,      {637}.
        ,    ?     ?         ,      ?                          ? ,       ,    . ,   ,                 .   ,                         .
                             .    ,     ,   ,     .           {638}, ,    ,  , ,      ,       .    ,    .
   .      ?
   .       ,      ,       .  ,      .        ,      ,      ,     ,   ,   ,   :  ,  .    .    .     ,      ,     , ,  :     ,     ,    ,        ,  .
   . ,   ,     ?
   .  ,  :        ,     .     .  ,     ,     ,   ,    ,     .         :  !          .  ,          {639}.
         ?  , ,   .          :
   ,     ,      ,   .       ,   ,        ,   {640}.
     ,      ,       .    ,               ,     ,   .
    :         ,    :         {641}.
           ,     .          .
      ,      .  {642}       ,            ,    .   ,          .   ,  , ,      ..      ,           ,   .   , , ,  ,    ,        ?    ,         ,    .       ?          .
    ,           ,          .   ,               ,     .           ,     ,  ,     ,     . ,     ,        , ,      ,       .    ,            .     .                .             ,           . ,     ,             ,  , ,          .                 .    ,       ,        . ,            ,     ,      ,       .                   .
    .         
   ( .  31 1985     ,       )
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                .      ,     ,    ,     ,            . 50                    20  .
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           ,                       ,  ,                    ,      ,      ,        .

   
   1
   , .     . ., , 1974, . 6.
   2
   The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 1981. N. Y., p.277
   3
   The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 1982. N. Y., p. 253.
   4
       .   . , 517 1969. ., 1969, . 309.
   5
   *         .
   6
        ,          .   .             (     *    ).
   7
   *,  (18201913)    .     ,  1849.       ,     ,      18501860 .  300 .     18611865 .    ,           .     .
   8
     ໗    (,   ),     ,        30     ,          .                   .         ,      ,   ,   ,    ,        XIX .,    .    1830.,    ,   .
   9
   ,         .        ,          .
   10
            1832,  ,  .
   11
   뻗     ,      (1838.)  .
   12
   *,    :            (    ),        ,      .
   13
         1861.      .  (   11 )    1865.,        .         ,  ,       .
   14
        ,        XIX   XX ,   .
   15
   *    1865.   1877.,     ,       (..,   ).       :       ,      ;  ,  ,     ,     .
   16
    컗    .
   17
     ,         ,       ,     , , ,          ..      ,    .     1841.             ,   ,    .
   18
   40    뻗   .  ,          ()     18611865 .      ,    ,       ,          .
   19
   *         22 1862.  ,  1 1863.     11  ,   ,   .      ,  ,              ,         .
   20
     ,   871900 .            ,      ,   ,         .    ,          .        , , ,      ,      .
   21
   *     () ,      3 1865.    .         ,      ,                ..              ,               .          ,  . .         .  (15 1865.),      ,     .      19 1866.             , .      .   16      ,      . ,    ,     ,        ,            ,        .               .
   22
           1865.              .    9.
   23
   *       4 1877., .          ,           .           .
   24
   ** 1876.       (.  ).   ,    ,  ,    ,     ,   ,     ,   1870-     .
   25
          1 1875.     .         , ,       , ,    ..                   10   .     (      1877.)    ,   1883.       .
   26
    ,         .        XIX .  ,     ,      .        ,    ,    .     ,     ,   .      ,      ,       .
   27
            1893.      400-     (   )  21 1892.,       .    12. ,      .          ,      ,           ,   .          ,      .         :                . .
   28
        ,   4 1886. (  1,    )          , 3.      ,             .   ,      .       .      ;       .     (       4)     .            ,     ,     11 1887.       ,  1 (    350.    ),    I  II      1889.         .
   29
           .     28 1940.   ,         ,        ,            .      1950- .
   30
         ,       .      ,     .       .         ,     .             ,       ,  ,   ,      (),      .     ,    ,      .
   31
          ,  ,  .      ,           .        (    ),      , , .    , ,  ,  ,       .
   32
       ,   ,   (  ) .
   
   1
   Phillips U.. American Negro Slavery. A Survey of the Supply, Employment, and Control of Negro Labor as Determined by the Plantation Regime. New York and London, D. Appleton, 1918. .   : Phillips U. B. The Plantation as a Civilising Factor.  Sewanee Review, XII, July, 1904,   : Phillips U. B. The Slave Economy of the Old South: Selected Essays in Economic and Social History. Edited by Eugene D. Genovese. Baton  Rouge, Louisana  State  University  Press., 1968.
     ,  , :     :
   1.          . 2. ,    ,                    . 3.              . 4.            .    ,                 ?        ,      ?             (. 83).
   2
              ,   ,     : American  Negro  Slave  Revolts. New York, International Publishers, 1970, First ed. 1948; To Be Free: Studies in American Negro History. New York, 1969. First ed. 1948; A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States, v. 1. New York, The Citadel Press, 1969; First ed. 1951; The Negro Woman.  Masses and Mainstream, v. 11, 2, February, 1948.
   3
   Genvese E. D. Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made, New York, Pantheon Books. 1974.
   4
   Blassingame 1 W. The Slave Community: Plantation Life in the Antebellum South. London and New York, Oxford University Press, 1972.
   5
   Fogel R. W. and Engerman S. Time on the Cross: The Economics of Slavery in the Antebellum South, 2 vol. Boston, Little, Brown& Co., 1974.
   6
   Gutman H. The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom, 17501925. New York, Pantheon Books, 1976.
   7
   E1kins S. Slavery: A Problem in American Institutional and Intellectual Life, 3rd edition, revised. Chicago and London, University of Chicago Press, 1976.
   8
   Moynihan D. The Negro Family: The Case for National Action. Washington, D. C, U. S. Department of Labor. 1965.. : Rainwater L., Yanc W. The Moynihan Report and the Politics of Controversy. Cambridge, Mass., MIT Press, 1967.
   9
   DuBois W. E. B. The Damnation of Women, Ch. VII ofDarkwater. New York, Harcourt, Brace and Howe, 1920.
   10
   Stampp. . The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in the Antebellum South. New York, Vintage Books, 1956, p. 343.
   11
   Ibid., p. 31, 49, 50, 60.
   12
   Watkins M. and David J.. eds. To Be a Black Woman: Portraits in Fact and Fiction. New York, William Morrow and Co., Inc., 1970, p. 16.. : Botkin B. A., ed. Lay My Burden Down: A Folk History of Slavery. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1945.
   13
   Wertheimer B. We Were There: The Story of Working Women in America. New York, Pantheon Books, 1977, p. 109.
   14
   Ibid., p. 111.. : Clarke L. Sons of a Soldier of the Revolution. Boston, 1846, p. 127.
   15
   Stampp, op. cit., p. 57.
   16
   Ball Ch. Slavery in the United States: A Narrative of the Life and Adventures of Charles Ball, a Black Man. Lewistown, Pa: J. W. Shugert, 1836, p. 150151. . : Lerner G., ed. Black Women in White America: A Documentary History. New York, Pantheon Books, 1972, p. 48.
   17
   Grand  . Narrative of the Life of Moses Grandy: Late a Slave in the United States of America. Boston, 1844, p. 18. . : Frazier F. E. The Negro Family in the United States. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1969, First edition, 1939.
   18
   Ibid.
   19
   Starobin R. Industrial Slavery in the Old South. London, Oxford, New York, Oxford University Press, 1970, p. 165 ff.
   20
   Ibid., p. 164165.
   21
   Ibid., p. 165.
   22
   Ibid., p. 165166.
   23
                      . Ibid., p. 166.
   24
    .   . ., . 23, . 405406.
   25
   Strbin, op. cit., p. 166.     :            .        ,  ,      .  . ,      , ,               .   ,           ,       .  ,     , ,           .
   26
   Olmsted F. L, A Journey in the Black Country. New York, i860, p. 1415.  In: Stampp, op. cit., p. 34.
   27
   .:  .   . ., . 46. , I, . 324:
     ,  ,    ,  ,      .
   28
   . : Staples R., ed. The Black Family: Essays and Studies. Belmont, Cal, Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc., 1971, p. 37. . : Bra J., Jr., Meier A, and Hudwik E.. eds. Black Matriarchy; Myth or Reality, Belmont, Cal., Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc., 1971, p. 140.
   29
   Brace y, op. cit., p. 81., : Rainwater L Crucible of Identity: The Negro Lower-Class Family,      Daedalus, v, XCV, Winter, 19G6, p. 172210.
   30
   Ibid., p. 98.
   31
   Ibid.
   32
   Frazier, op. cit.
   33
   Op. cit., p, 102.
   34
   Gutman, op. cit.
   35
             .         ,     ,  .   :                ,     ,  .   ,   .  :   ,     ,          ,    .        (Gutman, op, cit, p. 67).
   36
   Gutman, op. cit., ch. 3, 4.
   37
   Ibid. p. 356357.
   38
   Elkins, op. cit., p. 130.
   39
   Stampp, op. cit., p. 344
   40
   Davis A. The Black Woman's Role in the Community of Slaves. Black Scholar, v. Ill, 4, December, 1971.
   41
   Genovese. Roll, Jordan., Roll..  II,         .
   42
   Ibid., p. 500.
   43
   Ibid.
   44
   Ibid.
   45
   theker, op. cit., p. 145, 169, 173, 181, 182, 201, 207, 215, 239, 241242, 251, 259, 277, 281, 287.
   46
   Douglass F. The Life and Times of Frederick Douglass. New York, Collier, London, Collier-Macmillan. Ltd., 1962.     1892 . . .5  6.
   47
   Ibid., p. 46.
   .  :
      ,   ,             ,    ,   ,       .    .  ,   , ,    ,                , ,     .        ,                  ,    ,      ,   ,     .
   48
   Ibid., p. 4849.
   49
   Ibid., p. 52.
   50
   Wertheimer, op. cit., p. 113114.
          :    1855    ,  ,      ,  ,  ,    ,     ,    ,     .   :    , 26 ,    , 22  (  ),    , 22 ,     .       .
   51
       . Welld T. D. American Slavery As It Is: Testymony of a Thousand Witnesses. New York.,. American AntiSlavery Society, 1839. . : Lerner, op. cit., p. 19.
   52
   Ibid.
   53
   Aptheker. The Negro Woman, p. 11.
   54
   Ibid., p. 1112.
   55
   Aptheker. Slave Guerilla Warfare. In: To B Free. p. 11.
   56
   Aptheker. American Negro Slave Revolts, p. 259.
   57
   Ibid., p. 280.
   58
   Lerner, op. cit., p. 3233.
   . . :. [ ,  , ]  ,    .     ,          .      , ,       , ,               .      .   ,    ,         ,  ,  ,        .   .        . . : Haviland L. S. A Woman's LifeWork, Labors and Experiences, Chicago, Publishing Association of Friends, 1889, p. 300301.
   59
   Hale A. Roots: The Saga of an American Family. Garden City, New York. Doubleday and Co., 1978,  66, 67.
   60
   Bradford S. Harriet Tubman: The Moses of Her People, New York, Corinth Books, 1961. Reprinted from the 1886 edition; Petr A. Harriet Tubman, Conductor on the Underground Railroad. New York, Pocket Books, 1971. First edition 1955.
   61
   EisenBergman A. Women in Vietnam. San Francisco, People's Press, 1975, p. 63.
   62
   Ibid., p. 62.       ,     ,       .     ,     , . : Scott G. First Marine Division in WAW.  Winter Soldgier Investigation. Boston, Beacon Press, 1972, p. 13.
   63
   Ibid., p. 71.. : Winter Soldgier Investigation, p. 14.
   64
   Blassingame, op. cit,, p. 83.
   65
   Genvese. Roll, Jordan, Roll, p. 415.
   66
   Ibid., p. 419.
   67
   Jones G. Corregidora. New York, Random House, 1975.
   68
   Frazier, op. cit., p. 69.
   69
   Ibid., p. 53.
   70
   Ibid., p. 70.
   71
   Stowe H. B. Uncle Tom's Cabin. New York, New American Library, Signet Books, 1968, p. 27.
   72
   Ibid., p. 61.
   73
   Ibid., p. 72.
   74
   Douglass, op. cit., p. 469.
   75
   Ibid., p. 472.
   76
   Ibid.
   77
   Ibid.
   78
   Stowe, op, cit.
         :           ,    .    ,   ,        .       .            .      ,              ,   
   79
   Stowe, op. cit., p. 107.
   80
   .: Ehrenreich . and English D. Microbes and Manufacture of Housework. Ch. 5 of For Her Own Good: 150 Years of the Expert's Advice to Women, Garden City. New York, Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1978; Also Oakley A. Women's Work: The Housewife Past and Present New York, Vintage Books, 1976.
   81
   .: Flexner . Century of Struggle? The Women's Rights Movement in the U. S. New; York, Atheneum, 1973. Also Ran M. P. Womanhood in America. New York, New Viewpoints, 1975.
   82
   .: Aptheker. Nat Turner's Slave Rebellion. New York, Humanities Press, 1966; Robinson H. H. Loom and Spindle or Life Among the Early Mill Girls. Kailua, Hawaii, Press Pacifica, 1976; Also Wertheimer, op. cit., and Flexner, op. cit.
   83
   Robinson, op. cit., p. 51.
   84
   .                             .: Alien P. Woman Suffrage: Feminism and White Supremacy; Allen R. Reluctant Reformers. Washington, D. C.Howard University Press, 1974, p. 136.
   85
   Wertheimer, op. cit., p. 106.
   86
   .: Flexner, op. cit, p. 3840. Also Sillen S. Worn en Against Slavery. New York, Masses and Mainstream, Inc., 1955, p. 1116.
   87
   Sillen, op. cit., p. 13.
   88
   Ibid.
   89
   Ibid., p. 14.
   90
   Liberator, January1, 1831. . : Foster W. The Negro People in American History. New York, International Publishers, 1970, p. 108.
   91
   Sillen, op. cit., p. 17.
   92
   Ibid.
   93
    ,    ,      ,    (.: Flexner, op. cit, p. 2728.).   ,    ,   1832      ,    . . (.: Lerner, op. cit, p. 83.)
   94
   Flener, op. cit, p. 42. .         : Papachristou, ed. Women Together: A History in Documents of the Women's Movement in the United States. New York. Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., A Ms. Book, 1976, p. 45.
   95
   Sillen, op. cit., p. 20.
   96
   Ibid., p. 2122.
   97
   Ibid., p. 25.
   98
   Flexner, op. cit, p. 51.
   99
   Ibid.
   100
   Stanton E. C, Antony S. B. and Gage M. J. History of Woman Suffrage, v. 1 (18481861), New York, Fowler and Wells, 1881, p. 52.
   101
   Papachristou, op. cit., p. 12..           ,       : The Grimke Sisters from South Carolina: Pioneers for Women's Rights and Abolition, New York, Schocken Books, 1971, p. 189.
   102
   Papachristou, op. cit., p. 12.
   103
   Ibid.
   104
            Letters on the Equality of the Sexes    1937.      New England Spectator        Liberator. .: Lrner. The Grimke Sisters, p. 187.
   105
   . : Rossi  A., ed. The Feminist Papers. New York, Bantam Books, 1974, p. 308.
   106
   Ibid.
   107
   Flexner, op. cit, p. 48; Lerner. The Grimke Sisters, p. 201.
   108
   Grimke A, Appeal to the Women of the Nominally Free States. N. Y., W. S. Dorr, 1838, p. 1314.
   109
   Ibid., p. 21.
   110
   Flexner, op. cit., p. 47.
   111
   Lerner. The Grimke Sisters, p. 353.
   112
   Stanton et al. History of Woman Suffrage, v. 1, p. 62.
   113
   Ibid., p. 60 (note).
   114
   Hole J. and Levine E. The First Feministe. In: Koedt A., Levine E. and Rapone A., eds. Radical Feminism. New York, Quadrangle, 1973, p. 6.
   115
   Stanton E. C. Eighty Years and More: Reminiscences 18151897. New York, Schocken Books, 1917, Ch. 5.
   116
   Stanton et al. History of Woman Suffrage, v. 1, p. 62.
   117
   Ibid., p. 81
   118
   Ibid.
   119
   Ibid.
   120
   Remnd Ch, The World AntiSlavery Conference, 1840.  Liberator, October16, 1840, : Aptheker. A Documentary History, v. 1, p. 196.
   121
   Ibid.
   122
   Ibid.
   123
   Stanton et al. History of Woman Suffrage, v. 1, p. 53.
   124
   Stanton. Eighty Years and More, p. 33.
   125
   Ibid., p. 147148.
   126
   Douglass, op. cit., p. 473.
   127
   Flexner, op. cit., p. 70; Al1en, op. cit., p. 133.
   128
   North Star/ July28, 1848, . : Ph. Foner, ed. The Lifeand Writings of Frederick Douglass, v. 1. New York, International Publishers, 1950, p. 321.
   129
   Walker S. J. Frederick Douglass and Woman Suffrage. Black Scholar, v. IV, 67, March  April1973, p. 28.
   130
   Stanton. Eighty Years and More, p. 149.
   131
   Ibid.
   132
   Gurko M. The Ladies of Seneca Falls: The Birth of the Women's Riqhts Movement. New York, Schocken Books, 1976, p. 105.
   133
   .: Declaration of Sentiments.  la: Papachristou, op. cit, p. 2425.
   134
   Ibid., p. 25.
   135
   Ibid.
   136
   axandall R., Gordon L., Reverby S.. eds. America's Working Women: a Documentary History1600 to the Present. New York, Random House, 1976, p. 46.
   137
   Wertheimer, op. cit., p. 66.
   138
   Ibid, p. 67.
   139
   Baxandall, op. cit, p. 66.
   140
   Wertheimer, op. cit., p. 74.
   141
   Ibid, p. 103.
   142
   Ibid, p. 104.
   143
   Papachristou, op. cit, p. 26.
   144
   Lerner. The Grimke Sisters, p. 335.
   145
   Wertheimer, op. cit, p. 104.
   146
   Lerner. The Grimke Sisters, p. 159.
   147
   Ibid, p. 158.
   148
            1833. .: Lerner, Black Women in White America, p. 563 ff.
   149
   Lerner. Black Women in White America, p. 83; Flexner, op. cit, p. 4445.
   150
   Aptheker. A Documentary History, v. I, p. 89.
   151
   Douglass, op. cit, p. 268.
   152
   Walker, op. cit, p. 26.
   153
   Foner. The Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass, v.2, p. 19.
   154
   Stanton et al. History of Woman Suffrage, v. 1, p. 115117. '
   155
   Ibid.
   156
   Ibid.
   157
   Ibid.
   158
   Ibid.
   159
   Ibid.
   160
   Ibid.
   161
   Ibid.
   162
   Ibid.
   163
   Ibid.
   164
   Ibid.
   165
   Ibid.
   166
   Ibid, p. 567568 (  ).   .: Lerner. Black Women in White America, p. 568 ff.
   167
   Franklin J. H. From Slavery to Freedom. New York Vintage Books, 1969, p. 253.
   168
   Sillen, op. cit, p.86.
   169
   Foster, op. cit, p. 115116.
   170
   Flexner, op. cit, p. 108.
   171
   Ibid.
   172
   Foster, op. cit, p. 261.
   173
   Gurko, op. cit, p. 211.
   174
   Lerner. The Grimke Sisters, p. 353.
   175
   Ibid, p. 354.
   176
   Ibid.
   177
   Ibid.
   178
    .   . ., . 23; . 309.
   179
   Stanton E. G, Antony S.. and Gage M. J, eds., History of Woman Suffrage, v. 2 (18811876), Rochester. N Y Mann Ch., 1887, p. 9495 (note).
   180
   Ibid., p. 172.
   181
   Ibid., p. 159.
   182
   Ibid., p. 188.
   183
   Ibid., p. 216.
   184
   Stantn. Eighty Years and More, p. 240.
   185
   Ibid., p. 240241.
   186
   Ibid., p. 241.
   187
   Gurko, op. cit., p. 213.
   188
   Ibid.
   189
   Stanton et al. History of Woman Suffrage, v. 2, p. 214.
   190
   F1exner. op. cit., p. 144.
   191
   Allen, op. cit., p. 143.
   192
   Fner. The Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass, v. 4, p. 167.         ,  .   XXXII     9 1865 ,     28 1865 .
   193
   Ibid., p. 17.
   194
   Ibid., p. 41.
   195
   Aptheker. A Documentary History, v. 2,. 553554.  Memphis Riots and Massacres. Report 10i, House of Representatives, 39th Gong., 1st Sess., p. 160161, 222223.
   196
   Foster, op. cit., p. 261.
   197
   DuBois W. E. B. Black Reconstructionin America. Cleveland and New York, Meridian Books, 1964, p. 670.
   198
   Ibid., p. 671.
   199
   Ibid., p. 672.
   200
     . ,      .   ,         .  ,     ,      . ,    ,  ,  ,    ,          .  ,               ,      ໻. Foner. The Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass, v.4, p. 4142.
   201
   Stanton et al. History of Women Suffrage v. 2, p, 245.
   202
   Stantn. Eighty Years and More, p. 258.
   203
   Gurko, op. cit., p. 223.
   204
   Ibid., p. 223224.
   205
   Ibid., p. 221.. : Stanton. Eighty Years and More, p. 256.
   206
   Stanton et al. History of Woman Suffrage, v. 2, p. 382.
   207
   Foner. The Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass, v. 4, p. 44.
   208
   Ibid.
   209
   Ibid.
   210
   Stanton et al. History of Woman Suffrage, v. 2, p, 222; Lerner, Black Women in White America, p. 569.
   211
   Foner. The Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass, v. 4, p. 212 (Letter to Josephine Sohpie White Griffin, Rochester, September27, 1988).
   212
   Stanton  et  al. History  of  Woman  Suffrage, v. 2, p. 928,     ,      . .   , op. cit., . 148.
   213
   Stanton et al. History of Woman Suffrage, v. 2, p. 391. . .      ,     ,  60              .
   214
   Allen, op. cit, p. 145.
   215
   Stanton et al. History of Woman Suffrage, v. 2, p. 214; Allen, op. cit., p. 146.
   216
   DuBois. Darkwater, p. 113.
   217
   Wertheimer, op. cit., p. 228.
   218
   Aptheker. A Documentary History, v. 2, p. 747; Tenant Farming in Alabama, 1889. The Journal of Negro Education, XVII, 1948, p. 46 ff.
   219
   Aptheker. A Documentary History, v. 2, p. 689. Texas State Convention of Negroes, 1883.
   220
   Ibid., p. 690.
   221
   Aptheker. A Documentary History, v. 2, p. 704, Founding Convention of AfroAmerican League, 1890.
   222
   DuBois. Black Reconstruction in America, p. 698.
   223
   Ibid.
   224
   Ibid., p. 699.
   225
   Ibid., p. 698.
   226
   Aptheker. A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States, v. 1. Secaucus N. The Citadel Press, 1973, p. 46. A Southern Domestic Worker Speaks,The Independent, v. LXXII, January25, 1912.
   227
   Ibid., p. 46.
   228
   Ibid., p. 47.
   229
   Ibid., p. 50.
   230
   Ibid.
   231
   Ibid., p, 49.
   232
   Ibid.
   233
   Ibid.
   234
   Ibid.
   235
   Lerner. Black Women in White America, p. 462.The Colored Women's Statement to the Women's Missionary Council, American Missionary Association.
   236
   Aptheker. A Documentary History, v. 1, p. 49.
   237
   DuBois, Darkwater, p. 116.
   238
   Ibid., p. 115.
   239
   Eatn I. Special Report on Domestic Service. In: Duis W. E, B. The Philadelphia Negro, New York, Schocken Books, 1967, First edition, 1899, p. 427.
   240
   Ibid.
   241
   Ibid., p. 428.
   242
   Ibid.
   243
   Ibid., p. 465.
   244
   Ibid., p. 484.
   245
   Ibid., p. 485.
   246
   Ibid.
   247
   Ibid., p. 484.
   248
   Ibid., p. 449.  ,     ,                 .
   249
   Lrner. Black Women in White America, p. 229231; Mitchell L. Slave Markets Typify Exploitation of Domestics.  The Daily Worker, May5, 1940.
   250
   Lerner G. The Female Experience: An American Documentary. Indianapolis, Bobbs-Merrill, 1977, p. 269.
   251
   Ibid., p. 268.
   252
   Wertheimer, op. cit, p. 182183.
   253
   Lerner. Black Women in White America, p. 232.
   254
   Goodman I. A NineHour Day for Domestic Servante.  The Independent, v. LIX, February13, 1902.  In: Baxandall et al, op. cit, p. 213214.
   255
   Lerner. The Female Experience, p. 268.
   256
   Jackson J. J. Black Women in a Racist Society. In Willie Ch., ed. Racism and Mental Health. Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh Press, 1973, p. 236.
   257
   Ibid.
   258
   Duis. Darkwater, p. 115.
   259
   DuBois. Black Reconstruction in America. Ch. V.
   260
   Ibid., p. 122.
   261
   Ibid., p. 124.
   262
   Ibid.
   263
   Ibid.
   264
   Ibid., p. 123.
   265
   Dug1ass, op. cit., p. 79.
   266
   Ibid.
   267
   Watkins and David, op. cit., p. 18.
   268
   Aptheker. A Documentary History, v. 1, p. 493.
   269
   Ibid., p. 19.
   270
   Ibid.
   271
   Wertheimer, op. cit., p. 3536.
   272
   Lerner. Black Women in White America, p. 76.
   273
   ..2  .
   274
   Foner. The Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass, v. 4, p. 553 (note 16).
   275
   Ibid., p. 371 ff.
   276
   Ibid., p. 372.
   277
   Ibid.
   278
   Ibid., p. 371.
   279
   Ibid.
   280
   Flexner, op. cit., p. 99.
   281
   Ibid., p. 99101.
   282
   Foner, op. cit., v. 4, p. 373.
   283
   Aptheker. A Documentary History, v. 1, p. 157158.
   284
   Ibid.
   285
   Goodell W. The American Slave Code. N. Y. American and Foreign AntiSlavery Society, 1853, p. 321.  In: Elkins, op. cit., p. 60.
   286
   Ibid.
   287
   Genovese. Roll, Jordan, Roll, p. 565.
   288
   Lerner. Black Women in White America, p. 27 and p. 99 ff.
   289
   Ibid., p. 32ff.
   290
   DuBois. Black Reconstruction in America, p. 123.
   291
   Bennett L. Before the-Mayflower. Baltimore, Penguin Books, 1969, p. 181.
   292
   Foster, op. cit, p. 321.
   293
   DuBois. Black Reconstruction in America, p. 638.
   294
   Lerner. Black Women in White America, p. 102.
   295
   Ibid., p. 103.
   296
   Ibid.
   297
   Ibid., p. 104105.
   298
   Franklin, op. cit., p. 308.
   299
   DuBois. Black Reconstruction in America, p. 667.
   300
   Wells I. B. Crusade for Justice: The AutoBiography of Ida B. Wells, edited by Alfreda M. Duster. Chicago and London, University of Chicago Press, 1970, p. 228229.
   301
   Ibid.
   302
   Ibid., p. 230.
   303
   Ibid.
   304
   .: raditr A., ed. Up From the Pedestal: Selected Writings in the History of American Feminism. Chicago, Quadrangle, 1963.    , . . II,.5  6.
   305
   Aptheker H. AfroAmerican History: The Modern Era. N. Y., The Citadel Press, 1971, p. 100.
   306
   Ibid.
   307
   Wells, op. cit, p. 100.
   308
   Ibid., p. 229.
   309
   Anthony S. B. and Harper I. H., eds. History of Woman Suffrage, v. 4, Rochester, 1902, p. 246.
   310
   Ibid.
   311
   Stanton et al. History of Woman Suffrage, v. 2, p. 930.
   312
   Ibid, p. 931.
   313
   Ibid.
   314
   Ibid., p. 248.
   315
   Anthony and Harper. History of Woman Suffrage, v. 4, p. 216.
   316
   Aptheker. A Documentary History, v. 2, p. 813.
   317
   Anthony and Harper. History of Woman Suffrage, v. 4, p. 328.
   318
   Ibid., p. 333.
   319
   Ibid.
   320
   Ibid., p. 343.
   321
   Kraditor A. The Ideas of the Woman Suffrage Movement. N. Y. Doubleday/Anchor, 1971, p. 143.
   322
   Wells, op. cit., p. 100.
   323
   Aptheker. A Documentary History, v. 2, p. 796797, 798.
   324
   Ibid., p. 789.
   325
   Ibid., p. 789790.
   326
   Ibid., p. 790.
   327
   Ibid., p. 799.
   328
   Herper H. H., ed. History of Woman Suffrage, v. 5. N. Y., J. J. Little and Ives Co., 1902, p.5.
   329
   Ibid.
   330
   Ibid.
   331
   Ibid., p. 6.
   332
   Ibid., p. 80.
   333
   Ibid., p. 81.
   334
   Papachristou, op. cit, p. 144.
   335
   Ibid.
   336
   Ibid.
   337
   Ibid.
   338
   Franklin J. H. and Starr I., eds. The Negro in Twentieth Century America. N. Y., Vintage Books, 1967, p. 6869.
   339
   Ibid., p. 40.
   340
   Papachristou, op. cit, p. 144.
   341
   Harper. History of Woman Suffrage, v. 5, p. 83.
   342
   Ibid.
   343
   Ibid.
   344
   Lerner. Black Women in White America, p. 447450.
   345
   Wells, op. cit, p. 271.
   346
   Ibid.
   347
   O'Neill W. L. The Woman Movement? Feminism in the United States and England. Chicago, Quadrangle, 1969, p. 47ff.
   348
   Ibid., p. 48.
   349
   Ibid.
   350
   Ibid., p. 4849.
   351
   Wertheimer, op. cit., p. 195.
   352
   Wells, op. cit., p. 78.
   353
   Ibid.
   354
   Ibid., p. 7879.
   355
   Ibid., p. 81.
   356
   Ibid.
   357
   Ibid.
   358
   Ibid.
   359
   Ibid,, p. 83.
   360
   Ibid., p. 117.
   361
   Ibid., p. 121.
   362
   Ibid., p. 121122.
   363
   Ibid.
   364
   Ibid.
   365
   Ibid;
   366
   Ibid., p. 8.
   367
   Ibid., p. 242.
   368
   Ibid.
   369
   Lerner. Black Women In White America, p. 575576.
   370
   Ibid., p. 576.
   371
   Ibid., p. 575576.
   372
   Ibid., p. 444.
   373
   Wells, op. cit., p. 78.
   374
   Ibid.
   375
   Lerner. Black Women in White America, p. 206 ff
   376
   Wells, op. cit, p. 260.
   377
   axandall, op. cit, p. 83,
   378
   Ibid.
   379
   Wertheimer, op. cit, p. 161.
   380
   Ibid.
   381
   Foner Ph. Organised Labor and the Black Worker 16191973. Ni Y., International Publishers, 1973, p. 34.
   382
   Ibid.
   383
   The Ballot Bread, Virtue, Power, Revolution, January% 1868; . : William L. O'Neill. Everyone Was Brave: The Rise and Fall of Feminism in America. Chicago, Quadrangle, 1971, p. 19.
   384
   Wertheimer, op. cit, p. 166, 167.
   385
   Proceedings, National Labor Union, August1869.  Workingman's Advocate, v. VI, No. 5, September4, 1869, , : Baxandall et al., op. cit, p. 109114.
   386
   Ibid., p. 113.
   387
   O'Neill. Everyone Was Brave, p. 20.
   388
   Harper I. H. The Life and Work of Susan B. Anthony, v. 2, Indianapolis; 1898,. : Miriam Schneir, Feminism: The Essential Historical Writing. N. Y., Vintage Books, 1972, p. 139140.
   389
   Shneir, op. cit, p. 138142.
   390
   Proceedings, National Labor Union . : axandall et al., op. cit, p. 111.
   391
   Susan B. Anthony's Constitutional Argument 1873.
   392
   Ibid.. : Kraditor. Up from the Pedestal p. 249.
   393
   Harper, History of Woman Suffrage, v. 5, p. 352.
   394
   Lerner, Black Women in White America, p, 446.
   395
   Ibid.
   396
   Ibid.
   397
   Kraditor. The Ideas of the Woman Suffrage Movement, p. 169.
   398
   DuBois W. E. B. A. B.C. of Color. N, Y., International Publishers, 1963, p. 56.
   399
   Ibid., p. 57.
   400
   Ibid., p. 58.
   401
   Kraditor, The Ideas of the Woman Suffrage Movement, p. 168.
   402
   Editorial. The Crisis, IV, September, 1912, p. 234, . o: Aptheker. A. Documentary History, v. 1, p. 56.
   403
   Ibid., p. 5657.
   404
   The Crisis. X, August, 1915, 178192. . : Aptheker. A Documentary History, v, 1, p. 94116.
   405
   Ibid., p. 108ff
   406
   Ibid., p. 104.
   407
   Ibid., p. 314315.
   408
   Foster W. Z. History of the Communist Party of the United States. New York, International Publishers, 1952, p. 28ff.
   409
   Ibid., ch. 5.
   410
   Danis B. Socialism and Women in the United States, 19001912.  Socialist Revolution, No. 27, v. VI, No 1, January-March, 1976, p. 85.
   411
   Wertheimer, op. cit, p. 281284.
   412
   Foster. History of the Communist Party, p. 113.
   413
   Ibid. p. 125.
   414
   Foster. The Negro People, p. 403.
   415
   Foner. Organized-Labor and the Black Worker, p. 107.
   416
   Foster. History of the Communist Party, p. 264.
   417
   Asbaugh. Lucy Parsons: American Revolutionary. Chicago Charles H. Kerr Publishing Co., 1976. Published for the Illinois Labor History Society.
   418
   Ibid., p. 3033.
   419
   Ibid., p. 112.
   420
   Ibid., p. 117.
   421
   Ibid., p. 136.
   422
   Ibid,, p. 6566.
   423
   Ibid., p. 66.
   424
   Ibid, p. 217.
   425
   Ibid.
   426
          .: Foster. History of the Communist Party, p. 131, 380.       .: Foster. History of the Communist Party, p. 286; Foster. The Negro People, p. 482483;     . Fster. History of the Communist Party, p. 288; The Negro People, p. 461, 483.
   427
   Asbaugh, op. cit, p. 261.
   428
   Ibid., p. 267.
   429
   Nrth J. Communist Women.  Political Affairs, v. LI, No. 3, March, 1971, p. 31.
   430
    1 r . R. We Are Many: An Autobiography. New York, International Publishers, 1940, p. 224.
   431
   Ibid., p. 250.
   432
   Ibid.
   433
   Ibid., p. 254.
   434
   Ibid.
   435
   Ibid., p. 255.
   436
   Ibid.,.
   437
   Ibid.
   438
   Ibid., p. 256.
   439
   Ibid.
   440
   Al Richmond. Native Daughter: The Story of Anita Whitney. San Francisco: Anita Whitney 75th Anniversary Committee. 1942, ch. 4.
   441
   Ibid., p. 70.
   442
   Ibid., p. 78.
   443
   Ibid., p. 94.
   444
   Ibid., p. 95.
   445
   Ibid., p. 9596.
   446
   Ibid., p. 139.
   447
   Ibid., p. 198.
   448
   Flynn E.G. The Rebel Girl: An Autobiography. New York, International Publishers, 1973, p. 53.
   449
   Ibid., p. 62.
   450
   Boyer R. O. Elizabeth Gurley Flynn. Masses and Mainstream, May, 1952, p. 7.
   451
   Ibid., p. 12.
   452
   Vorse M. H. A. Footnote to Folly: Reminiscences. New Yr, Farrar& Rinehart, Inc., 1935, p. 34.
   453
   Ibid., p. 9.
   454
   F1nn, op. cit., p. 232.
   455
   Ibid., p. 233.
   456
   Ibid.,. : Foster. History of the Communist Party, p. 116.
   457
   Fner. Organized Labor and the Black Worker, p. 198.
   458
   Flynn. The Rebel Girl, p. 10.
   459
   Flynn. 1948. A Year of Inspiring Anniversaries for Women.  Political Affairs, v. XXVII, No. 3, March, 1948, p. 264.
   460
   Ibid., p. 262.
   461
   Flynn. The Alderson Story: My Life As a Political Prisoner. New York, International Publishers, 1972, p. 9.
   462
   Ibid., p. 17.
   463
   Ibid., p. 1718.
   464
   Ibid., p. 32.
   465
   Ibid., p. 176.
   466
   Ibid., p. 180.
   467
   Ibid.
   468
   North, op. cit., p. 29.
   469
           : Political Affairs, v. LIII, No. 3, March, 1974.
   470
   Ibid., p. 33.
   471
   Ibid.
   472
   Ibid., p. 35.
   473
   Ibid.
   474
   Ibid.
   475
   Ibid., p. 41.
   476
   Ibid., p. 35.
   477
   Flynn. The Alderson Story, p. 118.
   478
   Ibid., p. 211.
   479
   Gager N. and Schurr. Sexual Assault: Confronting Rape in America. New York, Grosset& Dunlap, 1976, p. 1.
   480
   Meltsner M. Cruel and Unusual: The Supreme Court and Capital Punishment. New York, Random Hus, 1973, p. 75.
   481
   The Racist Use of Rape and the Rape Charge. A Statement to the Women's Movement from a Group of Socialist Women. Louisville, Ky., Socialist Women's Caucus, 1974, p. 56.
   482
   Lerner. Black Women in White America, p. 193.
   483
   Davis A. Jo Anne Little The Dialectics of Rape.  Ms. Magazine, v. III, 12, June, 1975.
   484
   See: ch. 1.
   485
   Aptheker. A Documentary History, v. 2, p. 552.
   486
   Lerner. Black Women in White America, p. 185186.
   487
   Stein G. Three Lives. New York. Vintage Books, 1970, First Edition, 1909, p. 86.
   488
   EisenBergman, op. cit., Part I, Ch. 5.
   489
   Brownmiller S. Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape. New York, Simon and Schuster, 1975, p. 194.
   490
   A Dozen Who Made a Difference.  Times, v. 107, 1, January5, 1976, p. 20.
   491
   rwnmiller, op. cit, p. 247.
   492
   Ibid.
   493
   MacKellar J. Rape: The Bait and the Trap. New York, Grown Publishers, 1975, p. 72.
   494
   Ibid. ,   ,       ,  90%    .
   495
   Brownmiller, op. cit., p. 213.
   496
   Ibid., p. 175.
   497
   Connell N. and Wilson. eds. Rape: The First Sourcebook for Women by New York Radical Feminists. New York, New American Library, 1974, p. 171.
   498
   Russe1 D. the Politics of Rape: The Victim's Perspective. New York; Stein& Day, 1975.
   499
   Ibid., p. 163.
   500
   Collins W. H. The Truth About Lynching and the Negro in the South. New  York, Neale  Publishing  Co., 1918t  p. 9495.     ,       .
   501
   Firestone Sh. The Dialectic of Sex: The Case for Feminist Revolution. New York, Bantam Books, 1971, p. 108.
   502
   Ibid., p. 108.
   503
   Ibid., p. 110.
   504
   White W. Rope and Faggot: A Biography of Judge Lynch. New York, Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1929, p. 66.
   505
   Ibid.
   506
   Hernton Sex and Racism in America. New York. Grove Press, 1965, p. 125.
   507
   Ibid., p. 124.
   508
   White, op. cit, p. 91.
   509
   Ibid., p. 92.
   510
   Ibid., p. 86.
   511
   Ibid., p. 94.
   512
   WellsBarnett I. B. On Lynching. New York, rno Press& New York Times, 1969, p. 8
   513
   Douglass F. The Lesson of the Hour. Pamphlet, 1894     Why is the Negro Lynched  In Foner. The Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass, vol.4 p. 498499.
   514
   Ibid., p. 501.
   515
   Ibid.
   516
   Ibid.
   517
   Ibid., p. 502.
   518
   Collins, op. cit., p. 58.
   519
   Gager and Schurr, op. cit., p. 163.
   520
   Ibid.
   521
   Wellsarnett. On Lynching, p. 59.
   522
   Foner. The Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass, vol. 4, p. 503.
   523
   Ibid., p. 499.
   524
   Lynchings and What They Mean, General Finding of the Southern Commission on the Study of Lynching. Atlanta 1931, p. 19.
   525
   . : Lerner. Black Women in White America p. 205206.
   526
   Franklin and Starr, op. cit, p. 67.
   527
   WellsBarnett. On Lynching, p. 57.
   528
   Ibid., p. 8.
   529
   Wells. Crusade for Justice, p. 149.
   530
   Ginzburg R. One Hundred Years of Lynchings. New York, Lancer Books, 1969, p. 96.
   531
   Wells. Crusade for Justice, p. 63.
   532
   ..8  .
   533
   Wells. Crusade for Justice, p. 218.
   534
   Lerner. Black Women in White America, p. 205211.
   535
   Ibid., p. 215.
   536
   .: Ames J. D. The Changing Character of Lynching, 19311941. New York, AMS Press, 1973.
   537
   Ibid., p. 19.
   538
   White, op. cit, p. 3.
   539
   Ames, op. cit., p. 64.
   540
   White, op. cit., p. 159.
   541
   Foner. Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass, v.4, p. 496.
   542
   Brownmiller, op. cit, p. 255.
   543
   Ibid., p. 248249.
   544
   Ibid., p. 237.
   545
   Ibid., p. 233.
   546
   Gold W. M. et al. Therapeutic Abortions in New York City. A Twenty Year Review,American Journal Health, v. LV, July, 1965, p. 964972. . : Cisla L. Unfinished Business: Birth Control and Womens Liberation.
   Morgan R., ed. Sisterhood is Powerful: An of Writings From the Women's Liberation Movement. New York Vintage Books, 1970, p. 261.. : Staples R. The Black Woman in America. Chicago, Nelson Hall, 1974, p. 146.
   547
   Gutman, op. cit, p. 8081.
   548
   Ibid.
   549
   Apthekr. The Negro Woman, p. 12.
   550
   Baxandall et al., op. cit., p. 17.
   551
   Ibid.
   552
   Lerner. The Female Experience, op. cit., p. 91.
   553
   Ibid.
   554
   Ibid.
   555
   Marriage of Lucy Stone under Protest. History of Woman Suffrage, v. 1. . : Shneir, op. cit., p. 104.
   556
          , . : Shneir, op. cit., p. 153.
   557
   Ryan. P. Womanhood in America from Colonial Times to the Present. New York. Franklin Watts, Inc., 1975, p. 162.
   558
   Steinfeld M. Our Racist Presidents. San Ramon, California, Consensus Publishers, 1972, p. 212.
   559
   Mass B. Population Target: The Political Economy of Population Control in Latin America. Toronto, Canada, Women's Educational Press, 1977, p. 20.
   560
   Linda Gordon, Woman's Body, Woman's Right: Birth Control in America, New York. Penguin Books, 1976, p. 157.
   561
   Ibid., p. 158.
   562
   Ibid.
   563
   Sanger M. An Autobiography, N. Y., Dover Press, 1971, p. 75.
   564
   Ibid., p. 90.
   565
   Ibid., p. 91.
   566
   Ibid., p. 92.
   567
   Ibid., p. 106.
   568
   Mass, op. cit., p. 27.
   569
   Dancis, op. cit., p. 96.
   570
   Kennedy D. M. Birth Control in America: The Career of Margaret Sanger. New Haven and London, Yale University Press, 1976, p. 2122.
   571
   Mass., op. cit., p. 20.
   572
   Grdn, op. cit, p. 281.
   573
   Mass, op. cit., p. 20.
   574
   Gordon, op. cit, p. 283.
   575
   Aptheker H. Sterilization, Experimentation and Imperialism. Political Affairs, vol. LIII, No. 1, January1974, p. 44.
   576
   Corea G. The Hidden Malpractice. New York, A Jove/HBJ Book, 1977, p. 149.
   577
   Gordon, op. cit, p. 332.
   578
   Ibid., p. 332333.
   579
   Aptheker. Sterilization, p. 38;raden A. Forced Sterilization: Now Women Can Fight Back.  Southern Patriot, September, 1973.
   580
   Ibid.
   581
   S1ater J. Sterilization, Newest Threat to the Poor, Ebony, v. XXVIII, No. 12, October, 1973, p. 150.
   582
   raden, op. cit.
   583
   Payne Les. Forced Sterilization for Poor? San Francisco Chronicle, February26, 1974.
   584
   Harld X. Forced Sterilization Pervades South.  Muhammed Speaks, October10, 1975.
   585
   Slater, op. cit.
   586
   Payne, op. cit.
   587
   Ibid.
   588
   Ibid.
   589
   Aptheker. Sterilization, p. 40.
   590
   Payne, op. cit.
   591
   Aptheker. Sterilization, p. 48.
   592
   Eisen A. They are Trying to Take Our Future. Native American Women and Sterilization.  The Gardian, 23.III.1972.
   593
   Ibid.
   594
   Ibid.
   595
   .  ,  ,   . Box  A244, Cooper  Station. New  York 10003.
   596
   Ibid.
   597
   Ibid.
   598
   Gordon, op. cit, p. 338.
   599
   Ibid.
   600
   Mass, op. cit, p. 92.
   601
   Ibid.
   602
   Gordon, op. cit., p. 401.
   603
   Mass, op. cit, p. 108.
   604
   Aman R. Forced Sterilization.Union Wage, March4, 1978.
   605
   Ibid.
   606
   Oakley, op. cit, p. 6.
   607
   Ehrenreih B. and English D. The Manufacture of Housework.  Socialist Revolution, No. 26, v. 5, No. 4, October-December1975, p. 6.
   608
   Frederick E. Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State, edited, with an Introduction, by Eleanor Bufke Seacock N. Y., International Publishers, 1973. (See: ch. 2.)
   609
   Wertheimer, op. cit, p. 12.
   610
   Ehrenreih and Eng1ish. The Manufacture of Housework, p. 9.
   611
   Wertheimer, op. cit.., p. 12.
   612
   Baxandall et al., op. cit. p. 17.
   613
   Wertheimer, op. cit, p, 13.
   614
   Ehrenreich and English. The Manufacture of Housework, p. 10.
   615
   Gilman Perkins Ch. The Home: Its Work and Its Influence. Urbana, Chicago, London, University of Illinois press, 1972. Reprint of the 1903 edition, p. 3031.
   616
   Ibid., p. 10.
   617
   Ibid., p. 217.
   618
   DuBois. Darkwater, p. 185.
   619
       . . : Edmond W. and Fleming S., eds. All Work and no Pay: Women, Housework and Wages Due! Bristol, England, Falling Wall Press, 1975, P. 18.
   620
   Costa M. D. and James S. The Power  of Women and the Subversion of the Community. Bristol, England, Falling Wall Press, 1973.
   621
   Ibid., p. 28.
   622
   Inman M. In Woman's Defense. Los Angeles, Committee to Organize the Advancement of Women, 1940; Inman. The Two Forms of Production Under Capitalism. Long Beach, Gal., 1964
   623
   Benston M. The Political Economy of Women's Liberation. Monthly Review, v. XXI, 4, September, 1969.
   624
   On the Economic Status of the Housewife. In; Political Affairs, v. LIU, 3, March, 1974, p. 4.
   625
   Bernstein EL For Their Triumphs and For Then? Tears: Women in Apartheid South Africa. London, International Defence and Aid Fund, 1975, p. 13.
   626
   Landis E. Apartheid and the Disabilities of Black Women in South Africa. Objective: Justice, v, VII, N2 1, January-March, 1975, p. 6.
   627
   Bernstein, op. cit., p. 33.
   628
   Landis, op. cit., p. 6.
   629
    . . . . ., . 39, . 2324.
   630
         .
   631
   Jksn, op. cit., p. 236237.
   632
   Perl V. Economics of Racism. U. S.A., Roots of Black Inequality. New York, International Publishers, 1975, p. 24.
   633
   Staples. The Black Woman in America, p. 27.
   634
   Daily World, July26, 1977, p. 9.
   635
   Costa and James, op. cit., p. 40.
   636
   Sweeney P. Wages for Housework: The Strategy for Women's Liberation. Heresies, January, 1977, p. 104.
   637
   Costa and James, op. cit., p. 41.
   638
   Oakley A. The Sociology of Housework. N, Y., Pantheon Books, 1974.
   639
   Ibid., p. 65.
   640
   Ibid., p. 44.
   641
   Ibid., p. 53.
   642
   Psychology Today, vol. X, 14, September, 1976, p. 76.

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